Cantanhez National Park

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Summary

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• Western chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus) are present in Cantanhez National Park.
• It has been estimated that between 376 and 2,632 individuals occur at the site.
• The chimpanzee population trend is unknown.
• This site has a total size of 1057.67 km².
• Key threats to chimpanzees is the loss of habitat due to land-use conversion to agriculture.
• There are efforts to establish tourism at the site.

Cantanhez National Park

Site characteristics

Cantanhez is one of the last remaining fragments of humid forest in West Africa. It has been identified as one of the 200 most important ecoregions in the world by WWF and as one of seven priority areas in West Africa for chimpanzee conservation efforts (Kormos et al. 2003). The Cantanhez National Park (CNP) is a mosaic of settlements, agricultural fields, sub-humid forest, secondary forest, mangrove, and savanna (Catarino 2004). The rainfall in Guinea-Bissau is bimodal with a long dry season from November to May and a rainy season from mid-May to October (Catarino 2004). An average of 1400–2500 mm of rain falls per year and temperatures are at their lowest in January (24.7°C) and their highest in July (28.0°C) (Gippoliti et al. 2003). A range of non-human primate species occur in the CNP, including Campbell’s monkey (Cercopithecus campbelli), green monkey (Chlorocebus sabaeus), western black and white colobus (Colobus polykomos), bush baby (Galago senegalensis), Demidoff’s galago (Galagoides demidoff), and Temminck’s red colobus (Piliocolobus badius temminckii, Bersacola 2019, Hockings & Sousa 2013). Western red colobus (Piliocolobus badius temminckii) and king colobus (Colobus polykomos), both classified as Endangered, are present within some of the protected forest blocks in Cantanhez NP. The main threats are habitat loss and hunting, and these primates are rapidly disappearing from Cantanhez NP. Other conservation important species present in Cantanhez NP include the Guinea baboon (Papio papio, Near Threatened) that occurs within some forest blocks in southern Cantanhez NP, and the African forest elephant (Loxodonta cyclotis, Critically Endangered) which uses the northern parts of Cantanhez NP as a migration corridor. For other mammal species present and their conservation status, please see Bersacola & Hockings (2023) "Action plan for the conservation of medium- and large-sized terrestrial mammals in Cantanhez National Park, Guinea-Bissau".

Western red colobus (Piliocolobus badius temminckii) and king colobus (Colobus polykomos), both classified as Endangered, are present within some of the protected forest blocks in Cantanhez NP. The main threats are habitat loss and hunting, and these primates are rapidly disappearing from Cantanhez NP. Other conservation important species present in Cantanhez NP include the Guinea baboon (Papio papio, Near Threatened) that occurs within some forest blocks in southern Cantanhez NP, and the African forest elephant (Loxodonta cyclotis, Critically Endangered) which uses the northern parts of Cantanhez NP as a migration corridor. For other mamma species present and their conservation status, please see Bersacola & Hockings (2023) "Action plan for the conservation of medium- and large-sized terrestrial mammals in Cantanhez National Park, Guinea-Bissau".

Table 1. Basic site information for Cantanhez National Park

Species	Pan troglodytes verus
Area	1,057.67 km²
Coordinates	Lat: 11.19 , Lon: -15.12
Type of site	Protected area (National Park)
Habitat types	Subtropical/tropical dry forest, Subtropical/tropical moist lowland forest, Savanna, Grassland, Wetlands (lakes, rivers, streams, bogs, marshes), Marine coastal/supratidal, Agricultural land, Urban areas, Subtropical/tropical heavily degraded former forest
Type of governance	Governance by government

Types of sites Governance types Habitat types

Forest in Cantanhez © Queba Quecuta

Ape status

There are no regular surveys for chimpanzees and the national park as a whole was never surveyed. Recent research suggests that at least 12 chimpanzee communities occur in Cantanhez (Hockings in prep.). There is ongoing research by Kimberley Hockings and colleagues to assess population numbers and identify land-scape factors that affect the density and distribution of chimpanzees.

Table 2. Ape population estimates reported for Cantanhez National Park

Species	Year	Occurrence	Encounter or vistation rate (nests/km; ind/day)	Density estimate [ind./ km²] (95% CI)	Abundance estimate (95% CI)	Survey area	Sampling method	Analytical framework	Source	Comments	A.P.E.S. database ID
Pan troglodytes verus	2022		5.28			Cantanhez National Park (708 km²)	Reconnaissance walk	Predictive model	IBAP, Cantanhez Chimpanzee Project; Bersacola et al (in prep)	Whole park grid-based survey where each 4km2 cell is covered once (>2km walked). Final estimates tbc.
Pan troglodytes verus	2020-2022	Present				Cantanhez National Park (550 km²)	Camera trap	Predictive model	Cantanhez Chimpanzee Project; Bersacola et al (in prep)	Final density estimates tbc.
Pan troglodytes verus	2021		0.74			Cantanhez National Park (550 km²)	Line transects	Distance sampling (decay time unknown)	Cantanhez Chimpanzee Project; Bersacola et al (in prep)	Final density estimates tbc
Pan troglodytes verus	2016-2017		7.1			Central Cantanhez National Park (180 km²)	Camera trap	Predictive model	Bersacola et al 2022	Occupancy model. Occupancy probability 0.55 (±SE 0.07); 7.1 independent events / camera trap days.
Pan troglodytes verus	2007			1.94-2.34	33-40	Cantanhez National Park	Unknown		Sousa 2007
Pan troglodytes verus	2007			1.1-6.18	106.0	4 forests (Caiquene, Cibe Cadique, Lautchande, Madina)	Line transects		Sousa et al. 2011	Total survey effort: 28.35km, no robust results, density estimates range between 1.1-6.18 weaned individuals/km² and between 376 to 2,632 chimpanzees
Pan troglodytes verus	2003				376-2,632	Cantanhez region (including areas outside the NP such as Cacine and Catio)	Reconnaissance walk		Torres et al. 2010	Presence of chimpanzee nests recorded walking line transects, method for estimating population abundance not reported
Pan troglodytes verus	2003				376-2,632	Cantanhez region (including areas outside the NP such as Cacine and Catio). Estimates are for Cantanhez National Park	Survey data	Predictive model	Torres et al. 2010	Based on habitat suitability model, and according to the three different scenarios of population density (range 0.5-3.5 ind/km2).

Sampling methods Analytical frameworks

Threats

The chimpanzee populations occur in anthropogenic landscapes and are rarely persecuted through hunting or retaliatory killings (Sousa, Barata, Sousa, Casanova, & Vicente 2011a). Local residents report regular crop foraging by chimpanzees (Bessa et al. 2015). The level of negative interactions over cashew appears to be low, as chimpanzees forage on the economically unprofitable pseudofruit and reportedly leave the nuts in manageable piles thereby making nut collection easier for local farmers (Hockings & Sousa 2013). The foraging of other crops such as oranges in parts of Cantanhez NP are known to have resulted in retaliatory killings of chimpanzees by farmers. Only the greater cane rat (Thryonomys swinderianus) and the Gambian pouched rat (Cricetomys gambianus) are allowed to be hunted all year round. During the hunting period (1st Nov 1 – 30th April) more species can be hunted, including the common duiker (Cephalophus dorsalis), common warthog (Phacochoerus africanus), Crested porcupine (Hytrix cristata) and Beecroft’s scaly-tailed squirrel (Anomalurus beecrofti, IBAP 2018). Primates are under protection (IBAP 2018), but still illegally hunted for meat, mostly green monkeys and Campbell’s monkeys (Minhos et al. 2016, Hockings, Bersacola, Bessa, Ramon pers. obs.) and baboons are sometimes kept as pets (Hockings & Sousa, 2013a). Meanwhile chimpanzees are not hunted for meat due to local taboos and perceived similarity to humans. However, chimpanzees with snare injuries have been recorded on camera traps (Hockings, Bersacola, Bessa, Ramon unpublished data). An illegal pet trade in infant chimpanzees persists (Casanova & Sousa 2006, Hockings, Bersacola, Bessa, Ramon pers. obs.).

Table 3. Threats to apes reported for Cantanhez National Park

Category	Specific threats	Threat level	Description	Year of threat
1 Residential & commercial development	1.1 Residential areas	Medium (30-70% of population affected)	Illegal construction of settlements (Quecuta pers. comm. 2023). The establishment of new settlements within Cantanhez is prohibited though sometimes occurs (Quecuta pers. comm. 2023). Additionally, many settlements are expanding, increasing the demand for areas to farm, and the likelihood of human interactions with chimpanzees. The widespread occurrence of chimpanzees near villages across the park has implications for the sustainability of human-chimpanzee coexistence due to competition over crops (particularly orange), potential risks to human safety (particularly children), and risks of disease transmission (Bersacola et al. 2021, Bersacola & Hockings 2023).	Ongoing (2023)
11 Climate change & severe weather	11.2 Droughts	Present (unknown severity)	Dry seasons are becoming longer as the rainy season is starting several weeks later. Residents report an increasing lack of freshwater during the second half of the dry season (beginning in March), with natural water sources drying out more quickly or previously permanent sources now drying out. It is unclear to what extent this impacts chimpanzees and the implications for human-chimpanzee coexistence (Bersacola & Hockings pers. ob. 2024).	Ongoing (2024)
2 Agriculture & aquaculture	2.1 Annual & perennial non-timber crops	High (more than 70% of population affected)	Expansion of cashew and slash-and-burn agriculture (Hockings & Sousa 2013, Quecuta pers. comm. 2023). Cashew plantations are replacing fallow and forested areas, driving deforestation and declines in wild food sources for chimpanzees (Hockings & Sousa 2013, Bersacola & Hockings 2023). In 2019, an estimated 24% of Cantanhez's core areas (coastal forest blocks and savannahriverine forest mosaics) have been lost to cashew and it is a main threat to chimpanzee conservation (Pereira et al. 2022, Cantanhez Chimpanzee Project unpubl. data).	2013-Ongoing (2023)
3 Energy production & mining	3.2.3 Artisanal mining	Present (unknown severity)	Small scale charcoal mining is present in the northern areas of the park. It is unclear to what extent this impacts chimpanzees (Bersacola & Hockings 2024).	Ongoing (2024)
4 Transportation & service corridors	4.1 Roads & railroads	Present (unknown severity)	Road renovations since 2018 across the park have increased the number and speed of vehicles, with inadequate speed-limiting measures in place to prevent wildlife road mortalities (Bersacola & Hockings pers. obs. 2024).	2018-Ongoing (2024)
4 Transportation & service corridors	4.2 Utility & service lines	Present (unknown severity)	A new power line is currently (2024) being established along the roads across the park. It is unclear to what extent the widening of roads and loss of trees will directly impact chimpanzees, and attract people to migrate into Cantanhez (Bersacola & Hockings pers. obs. 2024).	Ongoing (2024)
5 Biological resource use	5.1.2 Unintentional effects	High (more than 70% of population affected)	Wire cable snares set up to capture other mammals unintentionally harm chimpanzees. Camera trap data since 2015 show multiple individuals across several chimpanzee communities with signs of snare injuries (Jones et al in prep).	2015-Ongoing (2024)
5 Biological resource use	5.1.4 Capture for the live animal trade	Present (unknown severity)	Capture of chimpanzee infants for pet trade (Quecuta pers. comm. 2023). The pet trade of chimpanzees in Guinea-Bissau is small compared to other countries, with fewer than 10 captive individuals identified between 2016 and 2024. Contextual information about some of these captive chimpanzees suggests that they originated from the southern part of the country, possibly including Cantanhez (Bersacola & Hockings pers. obs. 2024).	2015-Ongoing (2024)
5 Biological resource use	5.1.5 Persecution/human wildlife conflict	Medium (30-70% of population affected)	Some killings of chimpanzees by farmers occurred when they foraged oranges (Hockings & Sousa, 2013). Reports of conflict with chimpanzees usually increase during the orange fruiting season, when wild fruit is scarce and chimpanzees intensify the use of villages in search of orange and papaya (Bersacola et al 2021). Human retaliatory killings of chimpanzees are infrequent but do occur. Attacks by chimpanzees on local persons are currently rare but have the propensity to increase with increasing habitat loss and human-chimpanzee encounters (Bersacola, Hockings & Quecuta pers. obs. 2024). One chimpanzee was killed in December 2024 due to aggression towards a child (Quecuta pers. obs. 2024).	2013-Ongoing (2024)
5 Biological resource use	5.2 Gathering terrestrial plants	Low (up to 30% of population affected)	Palm oil is frequently collected (Sousa et al. 2011a, Costa et al. 2017), and there is overlap in use of wild plants by chimpanzees and humans (Hockings et al. in review)	2011-Ongoing (2017)
5 Biological resource use	5.3 Logging & wood harvesting	Present (unknown severity)	Wood harvesting for charcoal production (Quecuta pers. comm. 2023). Logging is prohibited within protected forests, and subject to legal permits within buffer zones. No commercial logging is allowed within the National Park. However, illegal logging is present in some parts of the park, particularly of African fan palm (Borassus aethiopum) which can be sold commercially for construction (Bersacola & Hockings 2024).	Ongoing (2024)
7 Natural system modifications	7.1 Fire & fire suppression	Present (unknown severity)	Slash-and-burn agriculture (Hockings & Sousa 2013). Fires set at the end of the dry season to clear land for shifting agriculture can sometimes become out of control, affecting the edges of forests and orchards. It is unclear whether these fires threaten the health and safety of chimpanzees or how severe the impact might be (Bersacola & Hockings pers. obs. 2024).	2013-Ongoing (2024)
8 Invasive & other problematic species, genes & diseases	8.4 Pathogens	High (more than 70% of population affected)	Human-chimpanzee interactions are frequent, though most are not direct (i.e. without direct physical contact). However, human interactions with other wildlife, including hunting, keeping non-human primates as pets, and releasing them back into the wild, may affect chimpanzees. Leprosy, caused by Mycobacterium leprae, has been identified in chimpanzees across Cantanhez (Hockings et al. 2021). It is unclear whether transmission to chimpanzees occurred directly from humans, possibly from a released pet chimpanzee, or through another animal host or the environment. The discovery of leprosy in chimpanzees in Cantanhez underscores the potentially high risk of human-derived infectious disease outbreaks in this population. To reduce the threat of disease transmission (especially of respiratory viruses) and negative interactions, chimpanzees have not been habituated for research or for tourism (Bersacola & Hockings pers. obs. 2024).	2010-Ongoing (2024)

Threats

Conservation activities

Cantanhez National Park was created in 2011 (Decree 14/2011) and is under the management of the national Institute for Biodiversity and Protected Areas (IBAP). Currently, IBAP is under the supervision of the Minister responsible for the Environment, and has administrative, financial and patrimonial autonomy, and therefore has the capacity to develop policies and regulations relating to the conservation of biodiversity and PAs. The main management objectives of IBAP in Cantanhez NP are the "preservation, conservation and defence of patches of sub-humid forest with great biological diversity. Cantanhez NP is considered to be the last patch of sub-humid forest in the country with the greatest floral and faunal diversity. Among other objectives are the safeguarding of endangered species of rare animals and plants", including western chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus), through "the promotion of ecotourism and the valorisation of economic activities as a way of improving the living conditions of the resident populations." (IBAP 2018; https://ibapgbissau.org/pnc-ap/). IBAP implements terrestrial and maritime monitoring missions, so-called "missões de fiscalização". The maritime mission, for example, enables detection of illegal fishing. In addition, IBAP implements law enforcement, and supports local livelihoods by building capacity for using marine resources sustainably, such as oyster farming. An EU funded projects supports farmers in adapting more efficient farming practices. Cantanhez is being developed as a destination for tourists (http://www.ecocantanhez.org/), but the number of visiting tourists is low. It has been reported that local guides were trained and places that could be visited have been identified (Sousa et al. 2014). While current levels of tourism are low, there seems to be strong support from the community to develop it further in the future (Sousa et al. 2014).

Table 4. Conservation activities reported for Cantanhez National Park

Category	Specific activity	Description	Implementing organization(s)	Year of activity
1 Development impact mitigation	1.13 Avoid/minimize logging of important food tree species for primates	Not formally implemented, but when clearing agricultural fields, local farmers in Cantanhez tend to avoid cutting large trees and palms that are important food sources for chimpanzees and are also used by people for food, medicine, shade, and spiritual reasons. Species protected by farmers include Parinari excelsa, Ceiba pentandra, and Elaeis guineensis (Hockings et al. 2020).		1990-Ongoing (2024)
1 Development impact mitigation	1.4 Farm more intensively and effectively in selected areas and spare more natural land	Support efficient farming practices (Hockings pers. obs. 2019).		Ongoing (2019)
2 Counter-wildlife crime	2.1 Implement road blocks to inspect cars for illegal ape bushmeat	Random road blocks to check for illegal bushmeat, including primate bushmeat, are sometimes carried out outside the park on the main road to Bissau (Bersacola & Hockings pers. obs. 2024).	Direção Geral das Florestas e Fauna do Ministério de Agricultura, Floresta e Desenvolvimento Rural	2020-Ongoing (2024)
2 Counter-wildlife crime	2.3 Conduct regular anti-poaching patrols	IBAP (responsible park authority) employs local communities to conduct patrols (IBAP 2018). Eight guards are employed to patrol the park (Quecuta pers. comm. 2023).	IBAP	2013-Ongoing (2023)
3 Species health	3.1 Wear face-masks to avoid transmission of viral and bacterial diseases to primates	A research health protocol with stricter rules was implemented during the COVID-19 pandemic when research resumed in May 2020. The rules included regular disinfection of hands, boots, and equipment; the use of face masks and gloves when deploying and handling camera traps in the forest; and the use of face masks during survey encounters with (unhabituated) primates. Though the protocol is no longer enforced, parts of it, such as frequent hand washing, defecating in holes, and avoiding work when feeling unwell, remain as recommendations (Bersacola & Hockings pers. obs. 2024).	CCP, IBAP	2020-2021
3 Species health	3.11 Implement continuous health monitoring/permanent vet on site	There is no veterinarian on site. In 2017, the Cantanhez Chimpanzee Project, in collaboration with the Robert Koch Institute and IBAP, began efforts to identify the cause of disease-like signs in chimpanzees that had been detected through camera trap footage by CCP members since 2015. Molecular confirmation of leprosy in chimpanzees was obtained in 2018 through faecal sampling (Hockings et al., 2021). In 2020, a biodiversity monitoring programme was implemented by the University of Exeter/Cantanhez Chimpanzee Project and IBAP, using camera traps to identify physical signs of disease in wildlife (Bersacola et al., 2021b). Intensive faecal sampling and high-resolution camera trap monitoring of three chimpanzee communities were carried out by the Cantanhez Chimpanzee Project in 2021–2022 to determine the prevalence of leprosy in chimpanzees (Marina Ramon, unpubl. data). As of 2024, health monitoring by the Cantanhez Chimpanzee Project and IBAP continues using camera traps (Bersacola & Hockings pers. obs. 2024).	CCP, IBAP	2020-Ongoing (2024)
3 Species health	3.12 Detect & report dead apes and clinically determine their cause of death to avoid disease transmission	A carcass swabbing protocol, including health and safety rules, has been operational since 2021 by the Cantanhez Chimpanzee Project (CCP) and IBAP, in collaboration with the Helmholtz Institute for One Health. Due to the lack of veterinarians in Cantanhez, primate carcasses are only swabbed and then buried on site. Residents are informed of the potential dangers posed by wildlife carcasses – particularly those of chimpanzees and other non-human primates – to human health, and are advised to avoid touching or approaching carcasses and to report any sightings to IBAP or CCP immediately (Bersacola & Hockings pers. obs. 2024).	IBAP, CCP, Helmholtz Institute for One Health	2021-Ongoing (2024)
3 Species health	3.2 Keep safety distance to habituated apes	Tourism guides in Cantanhez have been trained by the Cantanhez Chimpanzee Project in best practice guidelines (https://www.iucngreatapes.org/pr otect-great-apes-from-disease). Although the chimpanzees are unhabituated and usually move away in the presence of people during tourism encounters, a minimum distance of 10 meters is recommended. Guides also avoid allowing people to stand directly beneath chimpanzee nests during tourist visits. Guides report a lack of willingness by tourists to engage in disease prevention methods since the end of strict COVID-19 restrictions (Bersacola & Hockings pers. obs. 2024).	CCP, IBAP	2021-Ongoing (2024)
3 Species health	3.7 Regularly disinfect clothes, boots etc.	As per research health protocol and tourism best practice guidelines. No longer enforced as of 2024 (Bersacola & Hockings pers. obs. 2024).	CCP, IBAP	2020-2022
4 Education & awareness	4.1 Educate local communities about apes and sustainable use	One Health knowledge sharing sessions have been implemented in 2021 by CCP and ONG NADEL with local communities (142 local women and men) across 11 villages in central Cantanhez (CCP unpubl. data). In 2023, IBAP and CCP implemented an education activity programme with over 500 children (7-14 yrs) at villages across the whole of Cantanhez (A Sanhá, in prep).	NADEL, IBAP, CCP	2021-2023
4 Education & awareness	4.2 Involve local community in ape research and conservation management	Cantanhez chiefs (Régulos), some local group associations, and around 30 representatives of villages associated with protected forest blocks are part of the conservation management council, which is formally involved in the management of the park (IBAP 2018a, 2018b).	IBAP	2016-Ongoing (2024)
4 Education & awareness	4.3 Install billboards to raise ape conservation awareness	Protect Great Apes from Disease posters have been disseminated across Cantanhez, including at the local hospital in Iemberem.	CCP, IBAP	2021
4 Education & awareness	4.5 Implement multimedia campaigns using theatre, film, print media, discussions	See 4.1 (One Health knowledge sharing and children education sessions).	NADEL, IBAP, CCP	2021-2023
5 Protection & restoration	5.2 Legally protect ape habitat	Designated as national park since 2007 (UNEP-WCMC & IUCN 2019).		2007-Ongoing (2026)
7 Economic & other incentives	7.1 Provide monetary benefits to local communities for sustainably managing their forest and its wildlife (e.g., REDD, alternative income, employment)	Local people are employed to conduct patrols (IBAP 2018).		Ongoing (2018)
8 Permanent presence	8.2 Run tourist projects and ensure permanent human presence at site	Low levels of tourism (Sousa et al. 2014). Ecotourism has existed in the area since 1996 (Quecuta pers. comm. 2023).		1996-Ongoing (2023)

Conservation activities

Conservation awareness and education © Queba Quecuta

Challenges

The park has faced several long-standing challenges, including a lack of continuous funding, insufficient equipment, and limited transportation, which have complicated effective management since 2011. While funding remains largely dependent on short-term project cycles, transportation is expected to improve in 2025 with new vehicles and motorbikes provided by the GCCA+ project. Infrastructure has also been a concern, but progress has been made with the partial completion of a new park headquarters in 2024, and additional guard outposts are planned for 2025. Additionally, biomonitoring efforts have improved since 2016, with significant capacity-building initiatives taking place since 2020.

Other ongoing challenges include eroding traditional conservation taboos due to expanding cashew farming, limited community engagement, and weak law enforcement. While forest guards conduct patrols, further training and strategy development are scheduled for 2025 through GCCA+ and the Darwin Initiative. Broader issues such as political and economic instability continue to impact conservation efforts, as highlighted by the World Bank. Addressing these challenges will require sustained funding, stronger community involvement, and enhanced enforcement measures to ensure long-term conservation success (Bersacola & Hockings pers. comm. 2024).

Table 5. Challenges reported for Cantanhez National Park

Challenges	Specific challenges	Source	Year(s)
2 Resources and capacity	2.1 Lack of capacity/training	IBAP, unpublished reports; Hockings and Bersacola 2022	2011-2020
2 Resources and capacity	2.4 Lack of continuous/long-term funding	Bersacola & Hockings pers. obs. 2024	2011-Ongoing (2024)
2 Resources and capacity	2.5 Lack of equipment/transportation	Quecuta pers. obs. 2023	2011-Ongoing (2024)
2 Resources and capacity	2.6 Lack of biomonitoring/survey data	Bersacola et al. 2022; Bersacola et al 2021b; IBAP unpubl. data; Houldcroft et al in review; Bersacola and Hockings 2023; Bersacola et al. in prep	2011-2017
2 Resources and capacity	2.7 Lack of infrastructure	Bersacola & Hockings pers. obs. 2024	2011-2025
3 Engaged community	3.1 General lack of community engagement or support	Quecuta pers. obs. 2023	2018-Ongoing (2024)
3 Engaged community	3.4 Eroding taboos in favor of conservation	Chloe Chesney, unpubl. data; Bersacola & Hockings 2023	2011-Ongoing (2024)
4 Institutional support	4.1 Lack of law enforcement	Bersacola & Hockings pers. obs. 2024	2011-Ongoing (2024)
6 Safety and stability	6.1 Political/economic instability	WorldBank 2024	2011-Ongoing (2024)

Challenges

Enablers

Table 6. Enablers reported for Cantanhez National Park

Enablers	Specific enablers	Source	Year(s)
2 Resources and capacity	2.4 Adequate data to inform and evaluate conservation actions	Bersacola & Hockings 2023	2022-Ongoing (2024)
2 Resources and capacity	2.5 Sufficient capacity/expertise to advise, design, or implement actions	Bersacola et al 2021b	2021-Ongoing (2024)
2 Resources and capacity	2.6 External partnerships that add expertise or resources	Bersacola et al 2021b	2019-Ongoing (2024)
3 Engaged community	3.1 Strong local environmental knowledge	Sousa et al. 2014, 2017, 2018;Chesney unpubl. data	2000-Ongoing (2024)
3 Engaged community	3.5 Positive past experience/associations with conservation (e.g. positive image of conservation)	Chesney unpubl. data	2023-Ongoing (2024)
3 Engaged community	3.6 Local community engagement and support	IBAP 2018a, 2018b; Bersacola et al. 2021b, DAR31009	2016-Ongoing (2024)
3 Engaged community	3.7 Site has high cultural/religious value	IBAP 2018a, 2018b	2011-Ongoing (2024)

Enablers

Research activities

Chimpanzee research in Cantanhez NP began before the establishment of the park and is ongoing. Chimpanzees in Cantanhez NP have not been habituated for research to reduce the potential negative impacts associated with reducing fear of humans and the high overlap in space and resource use with the local human population across the entire park. Chimpanzee research therefore relies on indirect methods of data collection. Studies have been conducted on chimpanzee feeding ecology (Bessa et al 2015; Hockings et al 2020); habitat use, densities and distribution (Sousa et al 2011; Torres et al 2010; Bersacola et al 2021a; 2021b; 2022); parasitology (Sá et al 2013), behaviour and cultural repertoires (Bain et al., 2021; Bessa et al., 2022, 2021; Bersacola et al, in review), interactions with humans (Hockings and Sousa 2012; 2013; Bersacola et al 2019; Sousa et al 2014; 2017; 2018), disease and genetics (Hockings et al 2021; Marina Ramon, in prep). The Cantanhez Chimpanzee Project (CCP, co-directed by Dr K Hockings and Dr E Bersacola) is currently working in collaboration with IBAP to conduct long-term research on the behaviour, ecology and conservation of chimpanzees in Cantanhez NP. In particular, we carry out research on human-chimpanzee interactions at the landscape scale, using both biological and social sciences approaches. The primary aim of CCP is to carry out inter-disciplinary research to inform the development of evidence-based conservation and management strategies to promote human-chimpanzee coexistence in Cantanhez Np, and to inform conservation efforts in other protected areas in Guinea-Bissau (Bersacola and Hockings 2023). Additionally, CCP works in collaboration with IBAP, NGOs (including Nadel, Palmeirinha) and local stakeholders to promote multi-stakeholder involvement and public support for chimpanzee conservation through information sharing and knowledge exchange in informal and formal meetings with adult residents and through children's education. In 2020, a biodiversity and health monitoring programme was established in Cantanhez NP through a Darwin Initiative funded project (DAR26018) with IBAP and the Cantanhez Chimpanzee Project (CCP)/University of Exeter as the implementation partner institutions (Bersacola et al. 2021b). We conducted standardised surveys, including line transects and camera traps, across the park for three consecutive years (Hockings and Bersacola 2022; Bersacola et al. 2021b). Besides continuing landscape-scale camera trap-based biomonitoring, upcoming research activities supported by the Darwin Initiative (project DAR31009), implemented by IBAP, ONG Palmeirinha, and the University of Exeter through CCP, will include using camera traps, bioacoustics, interviews, participatory mapping, and informal consultations with residents to: (1) identify the ecological, social, and environmental drivers of human-chimpanzee interactions at the chimpanzee-community level across the park; (2) measure the impacts of wildlife, including chimpanzees, on human wellbeing and livelihoods; and (3) co-develop initiatives with local communities to support livelihood diversification and human wellbeing (DAR31009 https://www.biodiversitychallengefunds.org.uk/project/DAR31009).

Cantanhez National Park (Cantanhez NP) was created in 2011 (Decree 14/2011) and is under the management of the national Institute for Biodiversity and Protected Areas (IBAP). Currently, IBAP is under the supervision of the Minister responsible for the Environment, and has administrative, financial and patrimonial autonomy, and therefore has the capacity to develop policies and regulations relating to the conservation of biodiversity and PAs.

The main management objectives of IBAP in Cantanhez NP are the "preservation, conservation and defence of patches of sub-humid forest with great biological diversity. Cantanhez NP is considered to be the last patch of sub-humid forest in the country with the greatest floral and faunal diversity. Among other objectives are the safeguarding of endangered species of rare animals and plants", including western chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus), through "the promotion of ecotourism and the valorisation of economic activities as a way of improving the living conditions of the resident populations." (IBAP 2018; https://ibapgbissau.org/pnc-ap/).

Chimpanzee research in Cantanhez NP began before the establishment of the park and is ongoing. Chimpanzees in Cantanhez NP have not been habituated for research to reduce the potential negative impacts associated with reducing fear of humans and the high overlap in space and resource use with the local human population across the entire park. Chimpanzee research therefore relies on indirect methods of data collection. Studies have been conducted on chimpanzee feeding ecology (Bessa et al 2015; Hockings et al 2020); habitat use, densities and distribution (Sousa et al 2011; Torres et al 2010; Bersacola et al 2021a; 2021b; 2022); parasitology (Sá et al 2013), behaviour and cultural repertoires (Bain et al., 2021; Bessa et al., 2022, 2021; Bersacola et al, in review), interactions with humans (Hockings and Sousa 2012; 2013; Bersacola et al 2019; Sousa et al 2014; 2017; 2018), disease and genetics (Hockings et al 2021; Marina Ramon, in prep).

The Cantanhez Chimpanzee Project (CCP, co-directed by Dr K Hockings and Dr E Bersacola) is currently working in collaboration with IBAP to conduct long-term research on the behaviour, ecology and conservation of chimpanzees in Cantanhez NP. In particular, we carry out research on human-chimpanzee interactions at the landscape scale, using both biological and social sciences approaches. The primary aim of CCP is to carry out inter-disciplinary research to inform the development of evidence-based conservation and management strategies to promote human-chimpanzee coexistence in Cantanhez Np, and to inform conservation efforts in other protected areas in Guinea-Bissau (Bersacola and Hockings 2023). Additionally, CCP works in collaboration with IBAP, NGOs (including Nadel, Palmeirinha) and local stakeholders to promote multi-stakeholder involvement and public support for chimpanzee conservation through information sharing and knowledge exchange in informal and formal meetings with adult residents and through children's education.

In 2020, a biodiversity and health monitoring programme was established in Cantanhez NP through a Darwin Initiative funded project (DAR26018) with IBAP and the Cantanhez Chimpanzee Project (CCP)/University of Exeter as the implementation partner institutions (Bersacola et al. 2021b). We conducted standardised surveys, including line transects and camera traps, across the park for three consecutive years (Hockings and Bersacola 2022; Bersacola et al. 2021b). Besides continuing landscape-scale camera trap-based biomonitoring, upcoming research activities supported by the Darwin Initiative (project DAR31009), implemented by IBAP, ONG Palmeirinha, and the University of Exeter through CCP, will include using camera traps, bioacoustics, interviews, participatory mapping, and informal consultations with residents to: (1) identify the ecological, social, and environmental drivers of human-chimpanzee interactions at the chimpanzee-community level across the park; (2) measure the impacts of wildlife, including chimpanzees, on human wellbeing and livelihoods; and (3) co-develop initiatives with local communities to support livelihood diversification and human wellbeing (DAR31009 https://www.biodiversitychallengefunds.org.uk/project/DAR31009).

Documented behaviours

Table 7. Behaviours documented for Cantanhez National Park

Category	Behavior	Observation type	Prevalence	Observation dates	Source	Habituation	Species	Comment
	Honey dipping				Bessa et al. 2021, 2022
	Fluid dipping				Bessa et al. 2022
	Leaf-sponge				Bessa et al. 2022
	Honey-feed, no tools				Bessa et al. 2022
	Mangrove-eat				Bessa et al. 2022
	Saltwater-drink				Bessa et al. 2022
	Leaf-clipping (fingers and mouth)				Bessa et al. 2022
	Leaf dragging, leaf pulling				Bessa et al. 2022
	Rain-dance				Bessa et al. 2022
	Plant food sharing				Bessa et al. 2022, Bowland et al. (in prep)
	Raspberry vocalisation				Bessa et al. 2022
	Infant corpse carrying				Bersacola et al (in review)
	Nesting on oil palms				Sousa et al. 2011
	Crop feeding				Bessa et al. 2015, Hockings et al. 2020
	Meat consumption				CCP unpubl. data

Behaviours

Exposure to climate change impacts

As part of a study on the exposure of African great ape sites to climate change impacts, Kiribou et al. (2024) extracted climate data and data on projected extreme climate impact events for the site. Climatological characteristics were derived from observation-based climate data provided by the Inter-Sectoral Impact Model Intercomparison Project (ISIMIP, www.isimip.org). Parameters were calculated as the average across each 30-year period. For 1981-2010, the EWEMBI dataset from ISIMIP2a was used. For the two future periods (2021-2050 and 2071-2099) ISIMIP2b climate data based on four CMIP5 global climate models were used. For future projections, two Representative Concentration Pathways (RCP) were used. RCP 2.6 is a scenario with strong mitigation measures in which global temperatures would likely rise below 2°C. RCP 6.0 is a scenario with medium emissions in which global temperatures would likely rise up to 3°C by 2100. For the number of days with heavy precipitation events, the 98th percentile of all precipitation days (>1mm/d) was calculated for the 1979-2013 reference period as a threshold for a heavy precipitation event. Then, for each year, the number of days above that threshold was derived. The figures on temperature and precipitation anomaly show the deviation from the mean temperature and mean precipitation for the 1979-2013 reference period.

The estimated exposure to future extreme climate impact events (crop failure, drought, river flood, wildfire, tropical cyclone, and heatwave) is based on a published dataset by Lange et al. 2020 derived from ISIMIP2b data. The same global climate models and RCPs as described above were used. Within each 30-year period, the number of years with an extreme event and the average proportion of the site affected were calculated (Kiribou et al. 2024).

Table 8. Estimated past and projected climatological characteristics in Cantanhez National Park

Value	1981-2010	2021-2050, RCP 2.6	2021-2050, RCP 6.0	2071-2099, RCP 2.6	2071-2099, RCP 6.0
Mean temperature [°C]	26.8	27.7	27.7	27.8	29
Annual precipitation [mm]	2036	1911	1890	1934	1665
Max no. consecutive dry days (per year)	136.6	127.9	127.2	128.9	128.5
No. days with heavy precipitation (per year)	3.8	6.6	6.2	7	5.5

Table 9. Projected exposure of apes to extreme climate impact events in Cantanhez National Park

Type	No. of years with event (2021-2050, RCP 2.6)	% of site exposed (2021-2050, RCP 2.6)	No. of years with event (2021-2050, RCP 6.0)	% of site exposed (2021-2050, RCP 6.0)	No. of years with event (2070-2099, RCP 2.6)	% of site exposed (2070-2099, RCP 2.6)	No. of years with event (2070-2099, RCP 6.0)	% of site exposed (2070-2099, RCP 6.0)
Crop failure	4	0.13	3	0.07	3.5	0.08	7	0.13
Drought	0	0	0.25	25	0	0	4.5	100
Heatwave	1	50	0.5	50	0	0	1.5	50
River flood	0	0	1	2.03	1	0.21	1.25	3.94
Tropical cyclone	1	7.7	2	6.91	2.5	3.94	1	1.09
Wildfire	30	2.5	30	2.4	29	2.4	29	1.8

• 

  Precipitation anomaly in Cantanhez National Park

• 

  Temperature anomaly in Cantanhez National Park

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