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* The site has a total size of 10,830 km².
* The site has a total size of 10,830 km².
* Civil conflict and the rise of armed groups controlling artisanal mines have led to widespread poaching in the area.
* Civil conflict and the rise of armed groups controlling artisanal mines have led to widespread poaching in the area.
* The main conservation activities reported include, monitoring surveillance patrols, local community engagement, and providing non-monetary benefits to the local community.
* The Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund (DFGF) and Flora and Fauna International (FFI) have implemented community conservation projects near Maiko National Park.
* The Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund (DFGF) and Flora and Fauna International (FFI) have implemented community conservation projects near Maiko National Park.




= Site characteristics =
= Site characteristics =


Located in eastern DRC, Maiko National Park is the only protected area that harbours Grauer’s gorilla alongside important populations of okapi, Congo peafowl and forest elephant (Maldonado et al. 2012).
Located in eastern DRC, Maiko National Park is the only protected area that harbours Grauer’s gorilla alongside important populations of okapi, Congo peafowl and forest elephant ([[#R01148|Maldonado et al. 2012]]).


'''Table 1. Basic site information for Maiko National Park'''
'''Table 1. Basic site information for Maiko National Park'''
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= Ape status =
= Ape status =


Based on the encounter rates of nests of the 2005 and 2014 surveys, both chimpanzee and gorilla populations at Maiko National Park declined by 95.24% and 99.52% respectively (Plumptre et al. 2015). However, due to security issues, the surveys conducted have been infrequent, and they only covered sections of the park. For a more accurate assessment on the status of great apes, a survey covering the entire area is needed (Plumptre et al. 2015).
Based on the encounter rates of nests of the 2005 and 2014 surveys, both chimpanzee and gorilla populations at Maiko National Park declined by 95.24% and 99.52% respectively ([[#R01149|Plumptre et al. 2015]]). However, due to security issues, the surveys conducted have been infrequent, and they only covered sections of the park. For a more accurate assessment on the status of great apes, a survey covering the entire area is needed ([[#R01149|Plumptre et al. 2015]]).


'''Table 2. Ape population estimates reported for Maiko National Park'''
'''Table 2. Ape population estimates reported for Maiko National Park'''
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|-
|-
|''Gorilla beringei graueri''
|''Gorilla beringei graueri''
|2011-2012
|2020-2023
|Present
|
|
|
|
|127
|Maiko National Park
|Reconnaissance walk
|
|
|111-417
|[[#R01147|Kyungu Kasolene et al. 2024]]
|Maiko National Park North
|The survey was carried out in the accessible zones of Maiko National Park, using patrol-based reconnaissance routes (RECCE), GPS, CyberTracker, and SMART Mobile. The analysis also employed the SMART database, IKA (Indice Kilométrique d’Abondance), and other tools.
|Informed guess
|
|Plumptre et al. 2015
|
|
|
|-
|-
|''Gorilla beringei graueri''
|''Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii''
|2011-2012
|2020-2023
|Present
|
|
|
|
|
|196
|306-866
|Maiko National Park
|Maiko National Park South
|Reconnaissance walk
|Reconnaissance walk
|
|
|Nixon et al. 2005, Nixon 2010, as cited by Plumptre et al. 2015
|[[#R01147|Kyungu Kasolene et al. 2024]]
|
|The survey was carried out in the accessible zones of Maiko National Park, using patrol-based reconnaissance routes (RECCE), GPS, CyberTracker, and SMART Mobile. The analysis also employed the SMART database, IKA (Indice Kilométrique d’Abondance), and other tools.
|
|
|-
|-
Line 100: Line 96:
|Survey data, Reconnaissance walk, Line transects
|Survey data, Reconnaissance walk, Line transects
|
|
|Plumptre et al. 2015
|[[#R01149|Plumptre et al. 2015]]
|Abundance and density estimates are based on encounter rate data (from transects whenever possible).
|Abundance and density estimates are based on encounter rate data (from transects whenever possible).
|
|COD0080, COD0081<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" data-expandtext="+10 more" data-collapsetext="less">COD0082, COD0084, COD0086, COD0088, COD0122, COD0144, COD0158, COD0159, COD0162, COD0226</div>
|-
|-
|''Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii''
|''Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii''
Line 113: Line 109:
|Survey data, Reconnaissance walk, Line transects
|Survey data, Reconnaissance walk, Line transects
|
|
|Plumptre et al. 2015
|[[#R01149|Plumptre et al. 2015]]
|Abundance and density estimates are based on encounter rate data (from transects whenever possible).
|Abundance and density estimates are based on encounter rate data (from transects whenever possible).
|
|COD0080, COD0081<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" data-expandtext="+10 more" data-collapsetext="less">COD0082, COD0084, COD0086, COD0088, COD0122, COD0144, COD0158, COD0159, COD0162, COD0226</div>
|-
|-
|''Gorilla beringei graueri''
|''Gorilla beringei graueri''
|2020-2023
|2011-2012
|Present
|
|
|
|127
|
|
|Maiko National Park
|111-417
|Reconnaissance walk
|Maiko National Park North
|Informed guess
|
|
|Kyungu Kasolene et al. 2024
|[[#R01149|Plumptre et al. 2015]]
|The survey was carried out in the accessible zones of Maiko National Park, using patrol-based reconnaissance routes (RECCE), GPS, CyberTracker, and SMART Mobile. The analysis also employed the SMART database, ArcGIS 10.8, R software, Excel, and IKA (Indice Kilométrique d’Abondance).
|
|
|COD0080, COD0081<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" data-expandtext="+10 more" data-collapsetext="less">COD0082, COD0084, COD0086, COD0088, COD0122, COD0144, COD0158, COD0159, COD0162, COD0226</div>
|-
|-
|''Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii''
|''Gorilla beringei graueri''
|2020-2023
|2011-2012
|Present
|
|
|
|196
|
|
|Maiko National Park
|306-866
|Maiko National Park South
|Reconnaissance walk
|Reconnaissance walk
|
|
|Kyungu Kasolene et al. 2024
|Nixon et al. 2005, Nixon 2010, as cited by [[#R01149|Plumptre et al. 2015]]
|The survey was carried out in the accessible zones of Maiko National Park, using patrol-based reconnaissance routes (RECCE), GPS, CyberTracker, and SMART Mobile. The analysis also employed the SMART database, ArcGIS 10.8, R software, Excel, and IKA (Indice Kilométrique d’Abondance).
|
|
|COD0080, COD0081<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" data-expandtext="+10 more" data-collapsetext="less">COD0082, COD0084, COD0086, COD0088, COD0122, COD0144, COD0158, COD0159, COD0162, COD0226</div>
|}
|}


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= Threats =
= Threats =


In eastern DRC, the civil war gave rise to the formation of armed groups that controlled artisanal mines in the area. Armed groups and miners relied on hunting bushmeat. Gorillas are highly prized as bushmeat because of their large size and they are killed relatively easily since they move in groups on the ground. Insecurity and lack of law enforcement continue to be a concern; the presence of militia groups have made it very difficult to assess great ape populations at the site and protect them (Plumptre et al. 2016).
In eastern DRC, the civil war gave rise to the formation of armed groups that controlled artisanal mines in the area. Armed groups and miners relied on hunting bushmeat. Gorillas are highly prized as bushmeat because of their large size and they are killed relatively easily since they move in groups on the ground. Insecurity and lack of law enforcement continue to be a concern; the presence of militia groups have made it very difficult to assess great ape populations at the site and protect them ([[#R01150|Plumptre et al. 2016]]).


'''Table 3. Threats to apes reported for Maiko National Park'''
'''Table 3. Threats to apes reported for Maiko National Park'''
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!Year of threat
!Year of threat
|-
|-
|5 Biological resource use
|11 Climate change & severe weather
|5.1.4 Capture for the live animal trade
|11.2 Droughts
|Present (unknown severity)
|Present (unknown severity)
|Opportunistic live trade of chimpanzee and gorilla infants in the region; ICCN confiscated 16 gorilla infants between 2003 and approx. 2012 (Maldonado et al. 2012).
|Droughts reported among the climate change events, that negatively impact Grauer’s gorillas and their habitats ([[#R01145|Consolee, Luan, & Cong, 2024]]).
|2003-Ongoing (2012)
|Ongoing (2024)
|-
|-
|5 Biological resource use
|11 Climate change & severe weather
|5.1 Hunting & collecting terrestrial animals
|11.3 Temperature extremes
|High (more than 70% of population affected)
|Present (unknown severity)
|Hunting of gorillas in the southern part of the park has been recorded; outside of the park, a nearby population has been exterminated (Nixon 2006, Plumptre et al. 2015). Armed hunting and trapping with nylon snares and metal collars reported (Kyungu Kasolene et al. 2024).
|Increasing global temperatures reported among the climate change events, negatively impact Grauer’s gorillas and their habitats ([[#R01145|Consolee, Luan, & Cong, 2024]]).
|2006-Ongoing (2024)
|Ongoing (2024)
|-
|-
|5 Biological resource use
|11 Climate change & severe weather
|5.1.1 Subsistence bushmeat hunting
|11.4 Storms & flooding
|Present (unknown severity)
|Present (unknown severity)
|Artisanal miners rely on bushmeat once they are deep in the forest (Plumptre et al. 2015). High demand for bushmeat; armed conflicts exacerbate poaching (Consolee, Luan, & Cong, 2024).
|Floods and extreme weather reported among the climate change events, that negatively impact Grauer’s
|2015-Ongoing (2024)
gorillas and their habitats ([[#R01145|Consolee, Luan, & Cong, 2024]]).
|Ongoing (2024)
|-
|-
|8 Invasive & other problematic species, genes & diseases
|2 Agriculture & aquaculture
|8.4 Pathogens
|2.1 Annual & perennial non-timber crops
|Present (unknown severity)
|Present (unknown severity)
|Great apes are also at risk from disease transmission from miners, including ebola, respiratory infections, and other zoonotic diseases (Plumptre et al. 2015; Consolee, Luan, & Cong, 2024).
|Forest being cleared for agricultural plantations reported ([[#R01145|Consolee, Luan, & Cong, 2024]]).
|2015-Ongoing (2024)
|Ongoing (2024)
|-
|-
|3 Energy production & mining
|3 Energy production & mining
|3.2.3 Artisanal mining
|3.2.3 Artisanal mining
|High (more than 70% of population affected)
|High (more than 70% of population affected)
|Widespread artisanal and semi-industrial extraction gold, diamond, coltan, and cassiterite (Plumptre et al. 2015; Kyungu Kasolene et al. 2024; Consolee, Luan, & Cong, 2024).
|Widespread artisanal and semi-industrial extraction gold, diamond, coltan, and cassiterite ([[#R01149|Plumptre et al. 2015]]; [[#R01147|Kyungu Kasolene et al. 2024]]; [[#R01145|Consolee, Luan, & Cong, 2024]]).
|2015-Ongoing (2024)
|2015-Ongoing (2024)
|-
|-
|6 Human intrusions & disturbance
|5 Biological resource use
|6.2 War, civil unrest & military exercises
|5.1 Hunting & collecting terrestrial animals
|Present (unknown severity)
|High (more than 70% of population affected)
|Rebels, miners and poachers live in temporary or more permanent settlements in the park (BirdLife International 2020). Presence of armed groups in all sectors (north, center, south) reported (Consolee, Luan, & Cong, 2024; Kyungu Kasolene et al. 2024).
|Hunting of gorillas in the southern part of the park has been recorded; outside of the park, a nearby population has been exterminated (Nixon 2006, [[#R01149|Plumptre et al. 2015]]). Armed hunting and trapping with nylon snares and metal collars reported ([[#R01147|Kyungu Kasolene et al. 2024]]).
|2020-Ongoing (2024)
|2006-Ongoing (2024)
|-
|-
|5 Biological resource use
|5 Biological resource use
|5.3 Logging & wood harvesting
|5.1.1 Subsistence bushmeat hunting
|Present (unknown severity)
|Present (unknown severity)
|Forest clearing for charcoal, and timber reported (Consolee, Luan, & Cong, 2024).
|Artisanal miners rely on bushmeat once they are deep in the forest ([[#R01149|Plumptre et al. 2015]]). High demand for bushmeat; armed conflicts exacerbate poaching ([[#R01145|Consolee, Luan, & Cong, 2024]]).
|Ongoing (2024)
|2015-Ongoing (2024)
|-
|-
|2 Agriculture & aquaculture
|5 Biological resource use
|2.1 Annual & perennial non-timber crops
|5.1.4 Capture for the live animal trade
|Present (unknown severity)
|Present (unknown severity)
|Forest being cleared for agricultural plantations reported (Consolee, Luan, & Cong, 2024).
|Opportunistic live trade of chimpanzee and gorilla infants in the region; ICCN confiscated 16 gorilla infants between 2003 and approx. 2012 ([[#R01148|Maldonado et al. 2012]]).
|Ongoing (2024)
|2003-Ongoing (2012)
|-
|-
|11 Climate change & severe weather
|5 Biological resource use
|11.2 Droughts
|5.3 Logging & wood harvesting
|Present (unknown severity)
|Present (unknown severity)
|Droughts reported among the climate change events, that negatively impact Grauer’s
|Forest clearing for charcoal, and timber reported ([[#R01145|Consolee, Luan, & Cong, 2024]]).
gorillas and their habitats (Consolee, Luan, & Cong, 2024).
|Ongoing (2024)
|Ongoing (2024)
|-
|-
|11 Climate change & severe weather
|6 Human intrusions & disturbance
|11.3 Temperature extremes
|6.2 War, civil unrest & military exercises
|Present (unknown severity)
|Present (unknown severity)
|Increasing global temperatures reported among the climate change events, negatively impact Grauer’s
|Rebels, miners and poachers live in temporary or more permanent settlements in the park ([[#R01144|BirdLife International 2020]]). Presence of armed groups in all sectors (north, center, south) reported ([[#R01145|Consolee, Luan, & Cong, 2024]]; [[#R01147|Kyungu Kasolene et al. 2024]]).
gorillas and their habitats (Consolee, Luan, & Cong, 2024).
|2020-Ongoing (2024)
|Ongoing (2024)
|-
|-
|11 Climate change & severe weather
|7 Natural system modifications
|11.4 Storms & flooding
|7.1 Fire & fire suppression
|Present (unknown severity)
|Present (unknown severity)
|Floods and extreme weather reported among the climate change events, that negatively impact Grauer’s
|Wildfires also reported among the events that negatively impact Grauer’s gorillas and their habitats ([[#R01145|Consolee, Luan, & Cong, 2024]]).
gorillas and their habitats (Consolee, Luan, & Cong, 2024).
|Ongoing (2024)
|Ongoing (2024)
|-
|-
|7 Natural system modifications
|8 Invasive & other problematic species, genes & diseases
|7.1 Fire & fire suppression
|8.4 Pathogens
|Present (unknown severity)
|Present (unknown severity)
|Wildfires also reported among the events that negatively impact Grauer’s
|Great apes are also at risk from disease transmission from miners, including ebola, respiratory infections, and other zoonotic diseases ([[#R01149|Plumptre et al. 2015]]; [[#R01145|Consolee, Luan, & Cong, 2024]]).
gorillas and their habitats (Consolee, Luan, & Cong, 2024).
|2015-Ongoing (2024)
|Ongoing (2024)
|}
|}


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= Conservation activities =
= Conservation activities =


The Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund (DFGF) and Flora and Fauna International (FFI) established three community conservation projects near Maiko. DFGF works at Nkubu Conservation Area, which covers about 1,000 square kilometers between Maiko National Park and Kahuzi-Biega National Park, a second stronghold for Gauer's gorillas. On the western edge of Maiko, FFI works in two unofficially designated reserves; REGOLU, founded in 2004, and REGUMUKI, founded in 2007. Both sites are in the process of becoming officially recognized community forests, and they cover 500 and 1,000 square kilometers respectively (Fritts 2019).
The Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund (DFGF) and Flora and Fauna International (FFI) established three community conservation projects near Maiko. DFGF works at Nkubu Conservation Area, which covers about 1,000 square kilometers between Maiko National Park and Kahuzi-Biega National Park, a second stronghold for Gauer's gorillas. On the western edge of Maiko, FFI works in two unofficially designated reserves; REGOLU, founded in 2004, and REGUMUKI, founded in 2007. Both sites are in the process of becoming officially recognized community forests, and they cover 500 and 1,000 square kilometers respectively ([[#R01146|Fritts 2019]]).


'''Table 4. Conservation activities reported for Maiko National Park'''
'''Table 4. Conservation activities reported for Maiko National Park'''
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|2 Counter-wildlife crime
|2 Counter-wildlife crime
|2.11 Implement monitoring surveillance strategies (e.g., SMART) or use monitoring data to improve effectiveness of patrols
|2.11 Implement monitoring surveillance strategies (e.g., SMART) or use monitoring data to improve effectiveness of patrols
|Patrols and monitoring using SMART and Cybertracker reported (Kyungu Kasolene et al. 2024).
|Patrols and monitoring using SMART, and other monitoring tools reported ([[#R01147|Kyungu Kasolene et al. 2024]]).
|
|
|Ongoing (2024)
|Ongoing (2024)
|-
|5 Protection & restoration
|5.2 Legally protect ape habitat
|The site is a National Park  since, 1970.
|
|1970-Ongoing (2025)
|-
|-
|2 Counter-wildlife crime
|2 Counter-wildlife crime
|2.12 Implement community control of patrolling, banning hunting and removing snares
|2.12 Implement community control of patrolling, banning hunting and removing snares
|Community engagement and supporting activities for in order to implement robust monitoring (Consolee, Luan, & Cong, 2024).
|Community engagement and supporting activities for in order to implement robust monitoring ([[#R01145|Consolee, Luan, & Cong, 2024]]).
|Maiko National Park (MNP), DRC Government
|Maiko National Park (MNP), DRC Government
|Ongoing (2024)
|Ongoing (2024)
Line 269: Line 256:
|4 Education & awareness
|4 Education & awareness
|4.1 Educate local communities about apes and sustainable use
|4.1 Educate local communities about apes and sustainable use
|Working with local community members to facilitate educational and awareness programs on behalf of the MNP (Consolee, Luan, & Cong, 2024).
|Working with local community members to facilitate educational and awareness programs on behalf of the MNP ([[#R01145|Consolee, Luan, & Cong, 2024]]).
|Maiko National Park (MNP), DRC Government
|Maiko National Park (MNP), DRC Government
|Ongoing (2024)
|Ongoing (2024)
|-
|5 Protection & restoration
|5.2 Legally protect ape habitat
|The site is a National Park  since, 1970.
|
|1970-Ongoing (2026)
|-
|-
|7 Economic & other incentives
|7 Economic & other incentives
|7.2 Provide non-monetary benefits to local communities for sustainably managing their forest and its wildlife (e.g., better education, infrastructure development)
|7.2 Provide non-monetary benefits to local communities for sustainably managing their forest and its wildlife (e.g., better education, infrastructure development)
|Infrastructure improvement activities reported (Consolee, Luan, & Cong, 2024).
|Infrastructure improvement activities reported ([[#R01145|Consolee, Luan, & Cong, 2024]]).
|Maiko National Park (MNP), DRC Government
|Maiko National Park (MNP), DRC Government
|Ongoing (2024)
|Ongoing (2024)
Line 292: Line 285:
!Source
!Source
!Year(s)
!Year(s)
|-
|6 Safety and stability
|6.3 Civil unrest/war
|Maldonado et al. 2012
|
|-
|-
|1 Site management
|1 Site management
|1.2 Need for improved coordination
|1.2 Need for improved coordination
|Maldonado et al. 2012
|[[#R01148|Maldonado et al. 2012]]
|
|Ongoing (2012)
|-
|4 Institutional support
|4.1 Lack of law enforcement
|Plumptre et al. 2015
|
|-
|-
|2 Resources and capacity
|2 Resources and capacity
Line 327: Line 310:
|Kyungu JC. pers. comm. 2025
|Kyungu JC. pers. comm. 2025
|Ongoing (2025)
|Ongoing (2025)
|-
|3 Engaged community
|3.1 General lack of community engagement or support
|[[#R01145|Consolee, Luan, & Cong, 2024]]
|Ongoing (2024)
|-
|4 Institutional support
|4.1 Lack of law enforcement
|[[#R01149|Plumptre et al. 2015]]
|Ongoing (2015)
|-
|-
|6 Safety and stability
|6 Safety and stability
|6.2 Insecurity
|6.2 Insecurity
|Kyungu Kasolene et al. 2024; Consolee, Luan, & Cong, 2024
|[[#R01147|Kyungu Kasolene et al. 2024]]; [[#R01145|Consolee, Luan, & Cong, 2024]]
|Ongoing (2024)
|Ongoing (2024)
|-
|-
|6 Safety and stability
|6 Safety and stability
|6.3 Civil unrest/war
|6.3 Civil unrest/war
|Consolee, Luan, & Cong, 2024
|[[#R01148|Maldonado et al. 2012]]
|Ongoing (2024)
|Ongoing (2012)
|-
|-
|3 Engaged community
|6 Safety and stability
|3.1 General lack of community engagement or support
|6.3 Civil unrest/war
|Consolee, Luan, & Cong, 2024
|[[#R01145|Consolee, Luan, & Cong, 2024]]
|Ongoing (2024)
|Ongoing (2024)
|}
|}
Line 426: Line 419:
= Exposure to climate change impacts =
= Exposure to climate change impacts =


As part of a study on the exposure of African great ape sites to climate change impacts, Kiribou et al. subm. extracted climate data and data on projected extreme climate impact events for the site. Climatological characteristics were derived from observation-based climate data provided by the Inter-Sectoral Impact Model Intercomparison Project (ISIMIP, www.isimip.org). Parameters were calculated as the average across each 30-year period. For 1981-2010, the EWEMBI dataset from ISIMIP2a was used. For the two future periods (2021-2050 and 2071-2099) ISIMIP2b climate data based on four CMIP5 global climate models were used. For future projections, two Representative Concentration Pathways (RCP) were used. RCP 2.6 is a scenario with strong mitigation measures in which global temperatures would likely rise below 2C. RCP 6.0 is a scenario with medium emissions in which global temperatures would likely rise up to 3C by 2100. For the number of days with heavy precipitation events, the 98th percentile of all precipitation days (>1mm/d) was calculated for the 1979-2013 reference period as a threshold for a heavy precipitation event. Then, for each year, the number of days above that threshold was derived. The figures on temperature and precipitation anomaly show the deviation from the mean temperature and mean precipitation for the 1979-2013 reference period.
As part of a study on the exposure of African great ape sites to climate change impacts, [[#R02255|Kiribou et al. (2024)]] extracted climate data and data on projected extreme climate impact events for the site. Climatological characteristics were derived from observation-based climate data provided by the Inter-Sectoral Impact Model Intercomparison Project (ISIMIP, www.isimip.org). Parameters were calculated as the average across each 30-year period. For 1981-2010, the EWEMBI dataset from ISIMIP2a was used. For the two future periods (2021-2050 and 2071-2099) ISIMIP2b climate data based on four CMIP5 global climate models were used. For future projections, two Representative Concentration Pathways (RCP) were used. RCP 2.6 is a scenario with strong mitigation measures in which global temperatures would likely rise below 2C. RCP 6.0 is a scenario with medium emissions in which global temperatures would likely rise up to 3C by 2100. For the number of days with heavy precipitation events, the 98th percentile of all precipitation days (>1mm/d) was calculated for the 1979-2013 reference period as a threshold for a heavy precipitation event. Then, for each year, the number of days above that threshold was derived. The figures on temperature and precipitation anomaly show the deviation from the mean temperature and mean precipitation for the 1979-2013 reference period.


The estimated exposure to future extreme climate impact events (crop failure, drought, river flood, wildfire, tropical cyclone, and heatwave) is based on a published dataset by Lange et al. 2020 derived from ISIMIP2b data. The same global climate models and RCPs as described above were used. Within each 30-year period, the number of years with an extreme event and the average proportion of the site affected were calculated (see Kiribou et al. subm. for details).
The estimated exposure to future extreme climate impact events (crop failure, drought, river flood, wildfire, tropical cyclone, and heatwave) is based on a published dataset by Lange et al. 2020 derived from ISIMIP2b data. The same global climate models and RCPs as described above were used. Within each 30-year period, the number of years with an extreme event and the average proportion of the site affected were calculated ([[#R02255|Kiribou et al. 2024]]).


'''Table 8. Estimated past and projected climatological characteristics in Maiko National Park'''
'''Table 8. Estimated past and projected climatological characteristics in Maiko National Park'''
Line 551: Line 544:
= References =
= References =


Kyungu Kasolene, K., Malema, C., & Mayanga, P. (2024). La diversité faunique face aux activités anthropiques entre 2020 et 2023, un enjeu pour la conservation du Parc national de Maiko. Annales de l’Université de Goma, XIV(2), 510–522. <br>
<span id="R01144"></span>BirdLife International. (2020). Important Bird Areas factsheet: Maiko National Park. Online: http://datazone.birdlife.org/site/factsheet/maiko-national-park-iba-congo-the-democratic-republic-of-the/text [https://web.archive.org/web/20250114140051/https://datazone.birdlife.org/site/factsheet/maiko-national-park-iba-congo-the-democratic-republic-of-the/text link]
Maldonado, O., Aveling, C., Cox, D., Nixon, S., Nishuli, R., Merlo, D., Pintea, L. & Williamson, E.A. (2012). Grauer’s Gorillas and Chimpanzees in Eastern Democratic Republic of Congo (Kahuzi-Biega, Maiko, Tayna and Itombwe Landscape): Conservation Action Plan 2012–2022. Gland, Switzerland: IUCN/SSC Primate Specialist Group, Ministry of Environment, Nature Conservation & Tourism, Institut Congolais pour la Conservation de la Nature & the Jane Goodall Institute. 66pp. <br>
 
<span id="R01145"></span>Consolee, K. T., Luan, X., & Cong, L. (2024). Anthropogenic Pressures on Gorillas: A Case of Grauer’s Gorillas in Maiko National Park, the Democratic Republic of Congo. ''Diversity'', 16(4), 236. [https://doi.org/10.3390/d16040236 doi:10.3390/d16040236]


Plumptre, A.J., Nixon, S., Critchlow, R., Vieilledent, G., Nishuli, R., Kirkby, A., Williamson, E.A., Hall, J.S. & Kujirakwinja, D. (2015). Status of Grauer’s gorilla and chimpanzees in eastern Democratic Republic of Congo: Historical and current distribution and abundance. Unpublished report to Arcus Foundation, USAID and US Fish and Wildlife Service.
<span id="R01146"></span>Fritts, R. (2019, July 16). Agriculture, mining, hunting push critically endangered gorillas to the brink. Online: https://news.mongabay.com/2019/07/agriculture-mining-hunting-push-critically-endangered-gorillas-to-the-brink/


Plumptre, A.J., Nixon, S., Kujirakwinja, D.K., Vieilledent, G., Critchlow, R., Williamson E.A., et al. (2016). Catastrophic Decline of World's Largest Primate: 80% Loss of Grauer's Gorilla (Gorilla beringei graueri) Population Justifies Critically Endangered Status. PLoS ONE 11(10): e0162697. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0162697
<span id="R01147"></span>Kyungu Kasolene, K., Malema, C., & Mayanga, P. (2024). La diversité faunique face aux activités anthropiques entre 2020 et 2023, un enjeu pour la conservation du Parc national de Maiko. Annales de l’Université de Goma, XIV(2), 510–522.


BirdLife International. (2020). Important Bird Areas factsheet: Maiko National Park. Online: http://datazone.birdlife.org/site/factsheet/maiko-national-park-iba-congo-the-democratic-republic-of-the/text <br>
<span id="R01148"></span>Maldonado, O., Aveling, C., Cox, D., Nixon, S., Nishuli, R., Merlo, D., Pintea, L., & Williamson, E. A. (2012). Grauer’s gorillas and chimpanzees in Eastern Democratic Republic of Congo (Kahuzi-Biega, Maiko, Tayna and Itombwe Landscape): Conservation Action Plan 2012–2022. Gland, Switzerland: IUCN/SSC Primate Specialist Group, Ministry of Environment, Nature Conservation & Tourism, Institut Congolais pour la Conservation de la Nature & the Jane Goodall Institute. 66 pp. [http://www.primate-sg.org/storage/pdf/Eastern_DRC_CAP.pdf link]
Consolee, K. T., Luan, X., & Cong, L. (2024). Anthropogenic pressures on gorillas: A case of Grauer's gorillas in Maiko National Park, the Democratic Republic of Congo. Diversity, 16(4), 236. https://doi.org/10.3390/d16040236 <br>


<span id="R01149"></span>Plumptre, A. J., Nixon, S., Critchlow, R., Vieilledent, G., Nishuli, R., Kirkby, A., …, & Kujirakwinja, D. (2015). Status of Grauer's Gorilla and Chimpanzees in Eastern Democratic Republic of Congo: Historical and Current Distribution and Abundance. Wildlife Conservation Society. [https://doi.org/10.19121/2015.report.dmx3094100000 doi:10.19121/2015.report.dmx3094100000]


<span id="R01150"></span>Plumptre, A. J., Nixon, S., Kujirakwinja, D. K., Vieilledent, G., Critchlow, R., Williamson, E. A., …, & Hall, J. S. (2016). Catastrophic Decline of World's Largest Primate: 80% Loss of Grauer's Gorilla (Gorilla beringei graueri) Population Justifies Critically Endangered Status. ''PLOS ONE'', 11(10), e0162697. [https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0162697 doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0162697]


Fritts, R. (2019, July 16). Agriculture, mining, hunting push critically endangered gorillas to the brink. Online: https://news.mongabay.com/2019/07/agriculture-mining-hunting-push-critically-endangered-gorillas-to-the-brink/
<span id="R02255"></span>Kiribou, R., Tehoda, P., Chukwu, O., Bempah, G., Kühl, H. S., Ferreira, J., …, & Heinicke, S. (2024). Exposure of African ape sites to climate change impacts. ''PLOS Climate'', 3(2), e0000345. [https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pclm.0000345 doi:10.1371/journal.pclm.0000345]




Latest revision as of 17:53, 15 October 2026

Central Africa > Democratic Republic of the Congo > Maiko National Park

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Summary

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  • Eastern chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii) & Grauer's gorillas (Gorilla beringei graueri) are present in Maiko National Park.
  • The chimpanzee and gorilla population trends are decreasing.
  • The site has a total size of 10,830 km².
  • Civil conflict and the rise of armed groups controlling artisanal mines have led to widespread poaching in the area.
  • The main conservation activities reported include, monitoring surveillance patrols, local community engagement, and providing non-monetary benefits to the local community.
  • The Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund (DFGF) and Flora and Fauna International (FFI) have implemented community conservation projects near Maiko National Park.


Site characteristics

Located in eastern DRC, Maiko National Park is the only protected area that harbours Grauer’s gorilla alongside important populations of okapi, Congo peafowl and forest elephant (Maldonado et al. 2012).

Table 1. Basic site information for Maiko National Park

Species Gorilla beringei graueri, Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii
Area 10,830 km²
Coordinates Lat: -0.438204 , Lon: 27.470303
Type of site Protected area (National Park)
Habitat types Sutropical/tropical moist lowland forest
Type of governance Governance by government

Types of sites Governance types Habitat types

Ape status

Based on the encounter rates of nests of the 2005 and 2014 surveys, both chimpanzee and gorilla populations at Maiko National Park declined by 95.24% and 99.52% respectively (Plumptre et al. 2015). However, due to security issues, the surveys conducted have been infrequent, and they only covered sections of the park. For a more accurate assessment on the status of great apes, a survey covering the entire area is needed (Plumptre et al. 2015).

Table 2. Ape population estimates reported for Maiko National Park

Species Year Occurrence Encounter or vistation rate (nests/km; ind/day) Density estimate [ind./ km²] (95% CI) Abundance estimate (95% CI) Survey area Sampling method Analytical framework Source Comments A.P.E.S. database ID
Gorilla beringei graueri 2020-2023 Present 127 Maiko National Park Reconnaissance walk Kyungu Kasolene et al. 2024 The survey was carried out in the accessible zones of Maiko National Park, using patrol-based reconnaissance routes (RECCE), GPS, CyberTracker, and SMART Mobile. The analysis also employed the SMART database, IKA (Indice Kilométrique d’Abondance), and other tools.
Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii 2020-2023 Present 196 Maiko National Park Reconnaissance walk Kyungu Kasolene et al. 2024 The survey was carried out in the accessible zones of Maiko National Park, using patrol-based reconnaissance routes (RECCE), GPS, CyberTracker, and SMART Mobile. The analysis also employed the SMART database, IKA (Indice Kilométrique d’Abondance), and other tools.
Gorilla beringei graueri 2014-2015 0.001 15.0 Maiko National Park Survey data, Reconnaissance walk, Line transects Plumptre et al. 2015 Abundance and density estimates are based on encounter rate data (from transects whenever possible). COD0080, COD0081
COD0082, COD0084, COD0086, COD0088, COD0122, COD0144, COD0158, COD0159, COD0162, COD0226
Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii 2014-2015 0.006 60.0 Maiko National Park Survey data, Reconnaissance walk, Line transects Plumptre et al. 2015 Abundance and density estimates are based on encounter rate data (from transects whenever possible). COD0080, COD0081
COD0082, COD0084, COD0086, COD0088, COD0122, COD0144, COD0158, COD0159, COD0162, COD0226
Gorilla beringei graueri 2011-2012 111-417 Maiko National Park North Informed guess Plumptre et al. 2015 COD0080, COD0081
COD0082, COD0084, COD0086, COD0088, COD0122, COD0144, COD0158, COD0159, COD0162, COD0226
Gorilla beringei graueri 2011-2012 306-866 Maiko National Park South Reconnaissance walk Nixon et al. 2005, Nixon 2010, as cited by Plumptre et al. 2015 COD0080, COD0081
COD0082, COD0084, COD0086, COD0088, COD0122, COD0144, COD0158, COD0159, COD0162, COD0226

Sampling methods Analytical frameworks

Threats

In eastern DRC, the civil war gave rise to the formation of armed groups that controlled artisanal mines in the area. Armed groups and miners relied on hunting bushmeat. Gorillas are highly prized as bushmeat because of their large size and they are killed relatively easily since they move in groups on the ground. Insecurity and lack of law enforcement continue to be a concern; the presence of militia groups have made it very difficult to assess great ape populations at the site and protect them (Plumptre et al. 2016).

Table 3. Threats to apes reported for Maiko National Park

Category Specific threats Threat level Description Year of threat
11 Climate change & severe weather 11.2 Droughts Present (unknown severity) Droughts reported among the climate change events, that negatively impact Grauer’s gorillas and their habitats (Consolee, Luan, & Cong, 2024). Ongoing (2024)
11 Climate change & severe weather 11.3 Temperature extremes Present (unknown severity) Increasing global temperatures reported among the climate change events, negatively impact Grauer’s gorillas and their habitats (Consolee, Luan, & Cong, 2024). Ongoing (2024)
11 Climate change & severe weather 11.4 Storms & flooding Present (unknown severity) Floods and extreme weather reported among the climate change events, that negatively impact Grauer’s

gorillas and their habitats (Consolee, Luan, & Cong, 2024).

Ongoing (2024)
2 Agriculture & aquaculture 2.1 Annual & perennial non-timber crops Present (unknown severity) Forest being cleared for agricultural plantations reported (Consolee, Luan, & Cong, 2024). Ongoing (2024)
3 Energy production & mining 3.2.3 Artisanal mining High (more than 70% of population affected) Widespread artisanal and semi-industrial extraction gold, diamond, coltan, and cassiterite (Plumptre et al. 2015; Kyungu Kasolene et al. 2024; Consolee, Luan, & Cong, 2024). 2015-Ongoing (2024)
5 Biological resource use 5.1 Hunting & collecting terrestrial animals High (more than 70% of population affected) Hunting of gorillas in the southern part of the park has been recorded; outside of the park, a nearby population has been exterminated (Nixon 2006, Plumptre et al. 2015). Armed hunting and trapping with nylon snares and metal collars reported (Kyungu Kasolene et al. 2024). 2006-Ongoing (2024)
5 Biological resource use 5.1.1 Subsistence bushmeat hunting Present (unknown severity) Artisanal miners rely on bushmeat once they are deep in the forest (Plumptre et al. 2015). High demand for bushmeat; armed conflicts exacerbate poaching (Consolee, Luan, & Cong, 2024). 2015-Ongoing (2024)
5 Biological resource use 5.1.4 Capture for the live animal trade Present (unknown severity) Opportunistic live trade of chimpanzee and gorilla infants in the region; ICCN confiscated 16 gorilla infants between 2003 and approx. 2012 (Maldonado et al. 2012). 2003-Ongoing (2012)
5 Biological resource use 5.3 Logging & wood harvesting Present (unknown severity) Forest clearing for charcoal, and timber reported (Consolee, Luan, & Cong, 2024). Ongoing (2024)
6 Human intrusions & disturbance 6.2 War, civil unrest & military exercises Present (unknown severity) Rebels, miners and poachers live in temporary or more permanent settlements in the park (BirdLife International 2020). Presence of armed groups in all sectors (north, center, south) reported (Consolee, Luan, & Cong, 2024; Kyungu Kasolene et al. 2024). 2020-Ongoing (2024)
7 Natural system modifications 7.1 Fire & fire suppression Present (unknown severity) Wildfires also reported among the events that negatively impact Grauer’s gorillas and their habitats (Consolee, Luan, & Cong, 2024). Ongoing (2024)
8 Invasive & other problematic species, genes & diseases 8.4 Pathogens Present (unknown severity) Great apes are also at risk from disease transmission from miners, including ebola, respiratory infections, and other zoonotic diseases (Plumptre et al. 2015; Consolee, Luan, & Cong, 2024). 2015-Ongoing (2024)

Threats

Conservation activities

The Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund (DFGF) and Flora and Fauna International (FFI) established three community conservation projects near Maiko. DFGF works at Nkubu Conservation Area, which covers about 1,000 square kilometers between Maiko National Park and Kahuzi-Biega National Park, a second stronghold for Gauer's gorillas. On the western edge of Maiko, FFI works in two unofficially designated reserves; REGOLU, founded in 2004, and REGUMUKI, founded in 2007. Both sites are in the process of becoming officially recognized community forests, and they cover 500 and 1,000 square kilometers respectively (Fritts 2019).

Table 4. Conservation activities reported for Maiko National Park

Category Specific activity Description Implementing organization(s) Year of activity
2 Counter-wildlife crime 2.11 Implement monitoring surveillance strategies (e.g., SMART) or use monitoring data to improve effectiveness of patrols Patrols and monitoring using SMART, and other monitoring tools reported (Kyungu Kasolene et al. 2024). Ongoing (2024)
2 Counter-wildlife crime 2.12 Implement community control of patrolling, banning hunting and removing snares Community engagement and supporting activities for in order to implement robust monitoring (Consolee, Luan, & Cong, 2024). Maiko National Park (MNP), DRC Government Ongoing (2024)
4 Education & awareness 4.1 Educate local communities about apes and sustainable use Working with local community members to facilitate educational and awareness programs on behalf of the MNP (Consolee, Luan, & Cong, 2024). Maiko National Park (MNP), DRC Government Ongoing (2024)
5 Protection & restoration 5.2 Legally protect ape habitat The site is a National Park since, 1970. 1970-Ongoing (2026)
7 Economic & other incentives 7.2 Provide non-monetary benefits to local communities for sustainably managing their forest and its wildlife (e.g., better education, infrastructure development) Infrastructure improvement activities reported (Consolee, Luan, & Cong, 2024). Maiko National Park (MNP), DRC Government Ongoing (2024)

Conservation activities

Challenges

Table 5. Challenges reported for Maiko National Park

Challenges Specific challenges Source Year(s)
1 Site management 1.2 Need for improved coordination Maldonado et al. 2012 Ongoing (2012)
2 Resources and capacity 2.1 Lack of capacity/training Kyungu JC. pers. comm. 2025 Ongoing (2025)
2 Resources and capacity 2.2 Lack of staff Kyungu JC. pers. comm. 2025 Ongoing (2025)
2 Resources and capacity 2.3 General lack of funding Kyungu JC. pers. comm. 2025 Ongoing (2025)
2 Resources and capacity 2.4 Lack of continuous/long-term funding Kyungu JC. pers. comm. 2025 Ongoing (2025)
3 Engaged community 3.1 General lack of community engagement or support Consolee, Luan, & Cong, 2024 Ongoing (2024)
4 Institutional support 4.1 Lack of law enforcement Plumptre et al. 2015 Ongoing (2015)
6 Safety and stability 6.2 Insecurity Kyungu Kasolene et al. 2024; Consolee, Luan, & Cong, 2024 Ongoing (2024)
6 Safety and stability 6.3 Civil unrest/war Maldonado et al. 2012 Ongoing (2012)
6 Safety and stability 6.3 Civil unrest/war Consolee, Luan, & Cong, 2024 Ongoing (2024)

Challenges

Enablers

Table 6. Enablers reported for Maiko National Park

Enablers Specific enablers Source Year(s)
2 Resources and capacity 2.6 External partnerships that add expertise or resources Kyungu JC. pers. comm. 2025 Ongoing (2025)
1 Site management
3 Engaged community
4 Institutional support
5 Ecological context
6 Safety and stability

Enablers

Research activities

Documented behaviours

Table 7. Behaviours documented for Maiko National Park

Category Behavior Observation type Prevalence Observation dates Source Habituation Species Comment
Not reported

Behaviours

Exposure to climate change impacts

As part of a study on the exposure of African great ape sites to climate change impacts, Kiribou et al. (2024) extracted climate data and data on projected extreme climate impact events for the site. Climatological characteristics were derived from observation-based climate data provided by the Inter-Sectoral Impact Model Intercomparison Project (ISIMIP, www.isimip.org). Parameters were calculated as the average across each 30-year period. For 1981-2010, the EWEMBI dataset from ISIMIP2a was used. For the two future periods (2021-2050 and 2071-2099) ISIMIP2b climate data based on four CMIP5 global climate models were used. For future projections, two Representative Concentration Pathways (RCP) were used. RCP 2.6 is a scenario with strong mitigation measures in which global temperatures would likely rise below 2C. RCP 6.0 is a scenario with medium emissions in which global temperatures would likely rise up to 3C by 2100. For the number of days with heavy precipitation events, the 98th percentile of all precipitation days (>1mm/d) was calculated for the 1979-2013 reference period as a threshold for a heavy precipitation event. Then, for each year, the number of days above that threshold was derived. The figures on temperature and precipitation anomaly show the deviation from the mean temperature and mean precipitation for the 1979-2013 reference period.

The estimated exposure to future extreme climate impact events (crop failure, drought, river flood, wildfire, tropical cyclone, and heatwave) is based on a published dataset by Lange et al. 2020 derived from ISIMIP2b data. The same global climate models and RCPs as described above were used. Within each 30-year period, the number of years with an extreme event and the average proportion of the site affected were calculated (Kiribou et al. 2024).

Table 8. Estimated past and projected climatological characteristics in Maiko National Park

Value 1981-2010 2021-2050, RCP 2.6 2021-2050, RCP 6.0 2071-2099, RCP 2.6 2071-2099, RCP 6.0
Mean temperature [C] 23.7 24.8 24.6 25 26.1
Annual precipitation [mm] 1972 1949 1952 1895 2084
Max no. consecutive dry days (per year) 3.8 10.3 10.2 13.1 10.9
No. days with heavy precipitation (per year) 7.1 8.5 9.4 8.3 11.4


Table 9. Projected exposure of apes to extreme climate impact events in Maiko National Park

Type No. of years with event (2021-2050, RCP 2.6) % of site exposed (2021-2050, RCP 2.6) No. of years with event (2021-2050, RCP 6.0) % of site exposed (2021-2050, RCP 6.0) No. of years with event (2070-2099, RCP 2.6) % of site exposed (2070-2099, RCP 2.6) No. of years with event (2070-2099, RCP 6.0) % of site exposed (2070-2099, RCP 6.0)
Crop failure 13 0.01 11.5 0.01 11 0.01 26.5 0.01
Drought 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Heatwave 3.5 42.08 2.5 48.12 3.5 35.42 11.5 53.66
River flood 4.25 0.31 5.75 0.63 3.75 0.45 9.5 0.79
Tropical cyclone 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Wildfire 30 0.32 30 0.27 29 0.38 29 0.26


  • Precipitation anomaly in Maiko National Park
  • Temperature anomaly in Maiko National Park

External links

Maiko National Park

References

BirdLife International. (2020). Important Bird Areas factsheet: Maiko National Park. Online: http://datazone.birdlife.org/site/factsheet/maiko-national-park-iba-congo-the-democratic-republic-of-the/text link

Consolee, K. T., Luan, X., & Cong, L. (2024). Anthropogenic Pressures on Gorillas: A Case of Grauer’s Gorillas in Maiko National Park, the Democratic Republic of Congo. Diversity, 16(4), 236. doi:10.3390/d16040236

Fritts, R. (2019, July 16). Agriculture, mining, hunting push critically endangered gorillas to the brink. Online: https://news.mongabay.com/2019/07/agriculture-mining-hunting-push-critically-endangered-gorillas-to-the-brink/

Kyungu Kasolene, K., Malema, C., & Mayanga, P. (2024). La diversité faunique face aux activités anthropiques entre 2020 et 2023, un enjeu pour la conservation du Parc national de Maiko. Annales de l’Université de Goma, XIV(2), 510–522.

Maldonado, O., Aveling, C., Cox, D., Nixon, S., Nishuli, R., Merlo, D., Pintea, L., & Williamson, E. A. (2012). Grauer’s gorillas and chimpanzees in Eastern Democratic Republic of Congo (Kahuzi-Biega, Maiko, Tayna and Itombwe Landscape): Conservation Action Plan 2012–2022. Gland, Switzerland: IUCN/SSC Primate Specialist Group, Ministry of Environment, Nature Conservation & Tourism, Institut Congolais pour la Conservation de la Nature & the Jane Goodall Institute. 66 pp. link

Plumptre, A. J., Nixon, S., Critchlow, R., Vieilledent, G., Nishuli, R., Kirkby, A., …, & Kujirakwinja, D. (2015). Status of Grauer's Gorilla and Chimpanzees in Eastern Democratic Republic of Congo: Historical and Current Distribution and Abundance. Wildlife Conservation Society. doi:10.19121/2015.report.dmx3094100000

Plumptre, A. J., Nixon, S., Kujirakwinja, D. K., Vieilledent, G., Critchlow, R., Williamson, E. A., …, & Hall, J. S. (2016). Catastrophic Decline of World's Largest Primate: 80% Loss of Grauer's Gorilla (Gorilla beringei graueri) Population Justifies Critically Endangered Status. PLOS ONE, 11(10), e0162697. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0162697

Kiribou, R., Tehoda, P., Chukwu, O., Bempah, G., Kühl, H. S., Ferreira, J., …, & Heinicke, S. (2024). Exposure of African ape sites to climate change impacts. PLOS Climate, 3(2), e0000345. doi:10.1371/journal.pclm.0000345


Page created by: APES Atlas Team Date: 2020-12-03

Page updated by: JEAN CLAUDE KYUNGU Date: 2025-08-15

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