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* The park management implements anti-poaching patrols, roadblocks and supports communities around the park.
* The park management implements anti-poaching patrols, roadblocks and supports communities around the park.
* Niokolo-Koba National Park is contiguous with [[Badiar National Park]] in Guinea.
* Niokolo-Koba National Park is contiguous with [[Badiar National Park]] in Guinea.


= Site characteristics =
= Site characteristics =


The Niokolo-Koba National Park (also called Parc National du Niokolo Koba – PNNK) is located in southeastern Senegal and is contiguous with Badiar National Park in northern Guinea. Niokolo-Koba National Park has been established in 1954 (UNEP-WCMC & IUCN 2019). PNNK is also a World Heritage Site since 1981 and has been listed as a World Heritage site in danger since 2007 (UNESCO 2019a, UNESCO 2019b). It is also an Important Bird Area (BirdLife International 2019).
The Niokolo-Koba National Park (also called Parc National du Niokolo Koba – PNNK) is located in southeastern Senegal and is contiguous with Badiar National Park in northern Guinea. Niokolo-Koba National Park has been established in 1954 ([[#R01391|UNEP-WCMC & IUCN 2019]]). PNNK is also a World Heritage Site since 1981 and has been listed as a World Heritage site in danger since 2007 ([[#R01392|UNESCO 2019a]], [[#R01393|UNESCO 2019b]]). It is also an Important Bird Area ([[#R01377|BirdLife International 2019]]).


Most of the park is flat, but there are several hills in its eastern part with Mt Assirik being the highest elevation with 311 m (BirdLife International 2019). PNNK is characterized by savanna with gallery forests, grasslands, bamboo forests, and seasonally inundated flood-plains and marshes (BirdLife International 2019, Lindshield et al. 2019). The river Gambie and several of its tributaries cross the park.
Most of the park is flat, but there are several hills in its eastern part with Mt Assirik being the highest elevation with 311 m ([[#R01377|BirdLife International 2019]]). PNNK is characterized by savanna with gallery forests, grasslands, bamboo forests, and seasonally inundated flood-plains and marshes ([[#R01377|BirdLife International 2019]], [[#R01382|Lindshield et al. 2019]]). The river Gambie and several of its tributaries cross the park.


PNNK features a rich biodiversity with more than 70 mammal species, 329 bird species, 36 reptile species reptiles, 20 amphibian species and many species of invertebrates (BirdLife International 2019). Some of the present mammal species include lion (''Panthera leo''), leopard (''Panthera pardus''), African civet (''Civettictis civetta''), spotted hyena (''Crocuta crocuta''), roan antelope (''Hippotragus equinus''), African buffalo (''Syncerus caffer''), and African elephant (''Loxodonta africana'', Henschel et al. 2014, McGrew et al. 2014, Lindshield et al. 2019). In addition to western chimpanzees (''Pan troglodytes verus''), the presence of several primate species has been confirmed, including green monkey (''Chlorocebus sabaeus''), patas monkey (''Erythrocebus patas''), lesser bushbaby (''Galago senegalensis''), and Guinea baboon (''Papio papio'', Lindshield et al. 2019). There are also more than 1500 plant species (BirdLife International 2019).
PNNK features a rich biodiversity with more than 70 mammal species, 329 bird species, 36 reptile species reptiles, 20 amphibian species and many species of invertebrates ([[#R01377|BirdLife International 2019]]). Some of the present mammal species include lion (''Panthera leo''), leopard (''Panthera pardus''), African civet (''Civettictis civetta''), spotted hyena (''Crocuta crocuta''), roan antelope (''Hippotragus equinus''), African buffalo (''Syncerus caffer''), and African elephant (''Loxodonta africana'', [[#R01380|Henschel et al. 2014]], [[#R01386|McGrew et al. 2014]], [[#R01382|Lindshield et al. 2019]]). In addition to western chimpanzees (''Pan troglodytes verus''), the presence of several primate species has been confirmed, including green monkey (''Chlorocebus sabaeus''), patas monkey (''Erythrocebus patas''), lesser bushbaby (''Galago senegalensis''), and Guinea baboon (''Papio papio'', [[#R01382|Lindshield et al. 2019]]). There are also more than 1500 plant species ([[#R01377|BirdLife International 2019]]).


'''Table 1. Basic site information for Niokolo-Koba National Park'''
'''Table 1. Basic site information for Niokolo-Koba National Park'''
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[[Types of sites]] [[Governance types]] [[Habitat types]]  
[[Types of sites]] [[Governance types]] [[Habitat types]]  
= Ape status =
= Ape status =


In 1967, De Bournonville confirmed the presence of chimpanzees in Niokolo-Koba National Park (De Bournonville 1967). McGrew et al. (1981) estimated the chimpanzee population size to be around 24 individuals based on studying unhabituated chimpanzees around Mt. Assirik. Similarly, Pruetz et al. (2002) estimated a population size of 23 individuals based on nest count surveys.
In 1967, De Bournonville confirmed the presence of chimpanzees in Niokolo-Koba National Park ([[#R01379|De Bournonville 1967]]). [[#R01384|McGrew et al. (1981)]] estimated the chimpanzee population size to be around 24 individuals based on studying unhabituated chimpanzees around Mt. Assirik. Similarly, [[#R01387|Pruetz et al. (2002)]] estimated a population size of 23 individuals based on nest count surveys.


'''Table 2. Ape population estimates reported for Niokolo-Koba National Park'''
'''Table 2. Ape population estimates reported for Niokolo-Koba National Park'''
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|
|
|0.09
|0.09
|24
|24.0
|Assirik area
|Assirik area
|Full count
|Full count
|
|
|McGrew et al 1981
|[[#R01384|McGrew et al 1981]]
|
|
|
|
|-
|-
|''Pan troglodytes verus''
|''Pan troglodytes verus''
|1967
|2000
|Present
|
|
|
|
|0.13
|23.0
|Assirik area
|Line transects
|
|
|PNNK
|[[#R01387|Pruetz et al. 2002]]
|Interviews, Reconnaissance walk
|
|De Bournonville 1967
|
|
|
|
|-
|-
|''Pan troglodytes verus''
|''Pan troglodytes verus''
|2000
|1967
|Present
|
|
|
|
|
|0.13
|PNNK
|23
|Interviews, Reconnaissance walk
|Assirik area
|Line transects
|
|
|Pruetz et al. 2002
|[[#R01379|De Bournonville 1967]]
|
|
|
|
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[[Sampling methods]] [[Analytical frameworks]]  
[[Sampling methods]] [[Analytical frameworks]]  
= Threats =
= Threats =


In 2007, Niokolo-Koba National Park was listed as a World Heritage site in danger because of poaching, livestock grazing, and the Sambangalou dam project (UNESCO 2019b). The park is also negatively affected by drought (UNESCO 2019b). A road bisects the park and a large-scale gold mining operation at the eastern border of PNNK exerts further pressure on the park’s resources (Lindshield et al. 2019). In addition, anthropogenic bushfires have been reported, as well as illegal logging and fishing (BirdLife International 2019, Lindshield et al. 2019).
In 2007, Niokolo-Koba National Park was listed as a World Heritage site in danger because of poaching, livestock grazing, and the Sambangalou dam project ([[#R01393|UNESCO 2019b]]). The park is also negatively affected by drought ([[#R01393|UNESCO 2019b]]). A road bisects the park and a large-scale gold mining operation at the eastern border of PNNK exerts further pressure on the park’s resources ([[#R01382|Lindshield et al. 2019]]). In addition, anthropogenic bushfires have been reported, as well as illegal logging and fishing ([[#R01377|BirdLife International 2019]], [[#R01382|Lindshield et al. 2019]]).


There are plans to construct a dam 930 km upstream from the mouth of the Gambia River. While contributing to development by providing energy and irrigation opportunities, there are fears of environmental and social risks, especially for downstream wetlands and indirect impacts caused by population resettlement (BirdLife International 2019).
There are plans to construct a dam 930 km upstream from the mouth of the Gambia River. While contributing to development by providing energy and irrigation opportunities, there are fears of environmental and social risks, especially for downstream wetlands and indirect impacts caused by population resettlement ([[#R01377|BirdLife International 2019]]).


'''Table 3. Threats to apes reported for Niokolo-Koba National Park'''
'''Table 3. Threats to apes reported for Niokolo-Koba National Park'''
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|11.2 Droughts
|11.2 Droughts
|Medium (30-70% of population affected)
|Medium (30-70% of population affected)
|Droughts cause the drying of rivers and reduce flooding of marshes and flood-plains, causing damage also to forests (BirdLife International 2019).
|Droughts cause the drying of rivers and reduce flooding of marshes and flood-plains, causing damage also to forests ([[#R01377|BirdLife International 2019]]).
|Ongoing (2019)
|Ongoing (2019)
|-
|-
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|2.3 Livestock farming & ranching
|2.3 Livestock farming & ranching
|Medium (30-70% of population affected)
|Medium (30-70% of population affected)
|Livestock grazing (BirdLife International 2019, Lindshield et al. 2019, UNESCO 2019b).
|Livestock grazing ([[#R01377|BirdLife International 2019]], [[#R01382|Lindshield et al. 2019]], [[#R01393|UNESCO 2019b]]).
|Ongoing (2019)
|Ongoing (2019)
|-
|-
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|3.2 Mining & quarrying
|3.2 Mining & quarrying
|Present (unknown severity)
|Present (unknown severity)
|Artisanal gold mining (BirdLife International 2019, Lindshield et al. 2019, UNESCO 2019b).
|Artisanal gold mining ([[#R01377|BirdLife International 2019]], [[#R01382|Lindshield et al. 2019]], [[#R01393|UNESCO 2019b]]).
|Ongoing (2019)
|Ongoing (2019)
|-
|-
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|4.1 Roads & railroads
|4.1 Roads & railroads
|Medium (30-70% of population affected)
|Medium (30-70% of population affected)
|A road bisects the park (BirdLife International 2019, Lindshield et al. 2019, UNESCO 2019b).
|A road bisects the park ([[#R01377|BirdLife International 2019]], [[#R01382|Lindshield et al. 2019]], [[#R01393|UNESCO 2019b]]).
|Ongoing (2019)
|Ongoing (2019)
|-
|-
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|5.1 Hunting & collecting terrestrial animals
|5.1 Hunting & collecting terrestrial animals
|Medium (30-70% of population affected)
|Medium (30-70% of population affected)
|Illegal hunting has been reported (BirdLife International 2019, Lindshield et al. 2019, UNESCO 2019b).
|Illegal hunting has been reported ([[#R01377|BirdLife International 2019]], [[#R01382|Lindshield et al. 2019]], [[#R01393|UNESCO 2019b]]).
|Ongoing (2019)
|Ongoing (2019)
|-
|-
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|5.3 Logging & wood harvesting
|5.3 Logging & wood harvesting
|Present (unknown severity)
|Present (unknown severity)
|Illegal logging has been reported (BirdLife International 2019, Lindshield et al. 2019, UNESCO 2019b).
|Illegal logging has been reported ([[#R01377|BirdLife International 2019]], [[#R01382|Lindshield et al. 2019]], [[#R01393|UNESCO 2019b]]).
|Ongoing (2019)
|Ongoing (2019)
|-
|-
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|5.3 Logging & wood harvesting
|5.3 Logging & wood harvesting
|Present (unknown severity)
|Present (unknown severity)
|Illegal fishing (BirdLife International 2019).
|Illegal fishing ([[#R01377|BirdLife International 2019]]).
|Ongoing (2019)
|Ongoing (2019)
|-
|-
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|7.1 Fire & fire suppression
|7.1 Fire & fire suppression
|Present (unknown severity)
|Present (unknown severity)
|Anthropogenic fires (BirdLife International 2019, Lindshield et al. 2019).
|Anthropogenic fires ([[#R01377|BirdLife International 2019]], [[#R01382|Lindshield et al. 2019]]).
|Ongoing (2019)
|Ongoing (2019)
|}
|}


[[Threats]]  
[[Threats]]  
= Conservation activities =
= Conservation activities =


Niokolo-Koba National Park is managed by Direction des Parcs Nationaux (DPN). Conservation activities include anti-poaching patrols and road checkpoints (BirdLife International 2019, Lindshield at al. 20019). Park agents also engage with communities living close to the park to discourage illegal behavior, for example by supporting tourist guides, fishermen groups and providing veterinary assistance (BirdLife International 2019, Lindshield at al. 20019). The management plan from 2000 has expired and a request has been submitted to UNESCO to renew the management plan (BirdLife International 2019, UNESCO 2019b).
Niokolo-Koba National Park is managed by Direction des Parcs Nationaux (DPN). Conservation activities include anti-poaching patrols and road checkpoints ([[#R01377|BirdLife International 2019]], Lindshield at al. 20019). Park agents also engage with communities living close to the park to discourage illegal behavior, for example by supporting tourist guides, fishermen groups and providing veterinary assistance ([[#R01377|BirdLife International 2019]], Lindshield at al. 20019). The management plan from 2000 has expired and a request has been submitted to UNESCO to renew the management plan ([[#R01377|BirdLife International 2019]], [[#R01393|UNESCO 2019b]]).


'''Table 4. Conservation activities reported for Niokolo-Koba National Park'''
'''Table 4. Conservation activities reported for Niokolo-Koba National Park'''
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!Implementing organization(s)
!Implementing organization(s)
!Year of activity
!Year of activity
|-
|5 Protection & restoration
|5.2 Legally protect ape habitat
|Designated a national park in 1954 (UNEP-WCMC & IUCN 2019)
|
|1954-Ongoing (2025)
|-
|-
|2 Counter-wildlife crime
|2 Counter-wildlife crime
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|2 Counter-wildlife crime
|2 Counter-wildlife crime
|2.3 Conduct regular anti-poaching patrols
|2.3 Conduct regular anti-poaching patrols
|Park agents regularly conduct anti-poaching patrols (BirdLife International 2019, Lindshield at al. 20019)
|Park agents regularly conduct anti-poaching patrols ([[#R01377|BirdLife International 2019]], Lindshield at al. 20019)
|
|
|Ongoing (2019)
|Ongoing (2019)
|-
|5 Protection & restoration
|5.2 Legally protect ape habitat
|Designated a national park in 1954 ([[#R01391|UNEP-WCMC & IUCN 2019]])
|
|1954-Ongoing (2026)
|-
|-
|7 Economic & other incentives
|7 Economic & other incentives
|7.2 Provide non-monetary benefits to local communities for sustainably managing their forest and its wildlife (e.g., better education, infrastructure development)
|7.2 Provide non-monetary benefits to local communities for sustainably managing their forest and its wildlife (e.g., better education, infrastructure development)
|Communities living close to the park are supported , e.g., tourist guides, fishermen groups and providing veterinary assistance (BirdLife International 2019, Lindshield at al. 20019)
|Communities living close to the park are supported , e.g., tourist guides, fishermen groups and providing veterinary assistance ([[#R01377|BirdLife International 2019]], Lindshield at al. 20019)
|
|
|Ongoing (2019)
|Ongoing (2019)
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[[Conservation activities]]  
[[Conservation activities]]  
= Challenges =
= Challenges =


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[[Challenges]]  
[[Challenges]]  
= Enablers =
= Enablers =


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[[Enablers]]  
[[Enablers]]  
= Research activities =
= Research activities =


Research on chimpanzees in Niokolo-Koba National Park has been ongoing intermittently since the 1970s. A research site was established near Mt. Assirik by the Stirling African Primate Project (coordinated by William McGrew and Caroline Tutin) in 1976 to study the local chimpanzee community (Carter et al. 2003). Since then a wide variety of studies has been implemented on the ecology and social organization of chimpanzees, including diet, tool use and nesting behavior.
Research on chimpanzees in Niokolo-Koba National Park has been ongoing intermittently since the 1970s. A research site was established near Mt. Assirik by the Stirling African Primate Project (coordinated by William McGrew and Caroline Tutin) in 1976 to study the local chimpanzee community ([[#R01378|Carter et al. 2003]]). Since then a wide variety of studies has been implemented on the ecology and social organization of chimpanzees, including diet, tool use and nesting behavior.
 


= Documented behaviours =
= Documented behaviours =
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|
|
|
|
|McGrew et al. 2003
|[[#R01385|McGrew et al. 2003]]
|
|
|
|
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|
|
|
|
|McGrew et al. 2003
|[[#R01385|McGrew et al. 2003]]
|
|
|
|
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|
|
|
|
|McGrew et al. 2003
|[[#R01385|McGrew et al. 2003]]
|
|
|
|
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|
|
|
|
|compiled in Kühl et al. 2019
|compiled in [[#R01381|Kühl et al. 2019]]
|
|
|
|
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|
|
|
|
|Marchant & McGrew 2005
|[[#R01383|Marchant & McGrew 2005]]
|
|
|
|
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|
|
|
|
|McGrew et al. 2003
|[[#R01385|McGrew et al. 2003]]
|
|
|
|
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|
|
|
|
|McGrew et al. 2003
|[[#R01385|McGrew et al. 2003]]
|
|
|
|
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|
|
|
|
|Pruetz et al. 2008
|[[#R01388|Pruetz et al. 2008]]
|
|
|
|
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|
|
|
|
|McGrew et al. 2003
|[[#R01385|McGrew et al. 2003]]
|
|
|
|
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|
|
|
|
|McGrew et al. 2003
|[[#R01385|McGrew et al. 2003]]
|
|
|
|
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|
|
|
|
|McGrew et al. 2003
|[[#R01385|McGrew et al. 2003]]
|
|
|
|
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[[Behaviours]]  
[[Behaviours]]  
= Exposure to climate change impacts =
= Exposure to climate change impacts =


As part of a study on the exposure of African great ape sites to climate change impacts, Kiribou et al. subm. extracted climate data and data on projected extreme climate impact events for the site. Climatological characteristics were derived from observation-based climate data provided by the Inter-Sectoral Impact Model Intercomparison Project (ISIMIP, www.isimip.org). Parameters were calculated as the average across each 30-year period. For 1981-2010, the EWEMBI dataset from ISIMIP2a was used. For the two future periods (2021-2050 and 2071-2099) ISIMIP2b climate data based on four CMIP5 global climate models were used. For future projections, two Representative Concentration Pathways (RCP) were used. RCP 2.6 is a scenario with strong mitigation measures in which global temperatures would likely rise below 2C. RCP 6.0 is a scenario with medium emissions in which global temperatures would likely rise up to 3C by 2100. For the number of days with heavy precipitation events, the 98th percentile of all precipitation days (>1mm/d) was calculated for the 1979-2013 reference period as a threshold for a heavy precipitation event. Then, for each year, the number of days above that threshold was derived. The figures on temperature and precipitation anomaly show the deviation from the mean temperature and mean precipitation for the 1979-2013 reference period.
As part of a study on the exposure of African great ape sites to climate change impacts, [[#R02283|Kiribou et al. (2024)]] extracted climate data and data on projected extreme climate impact events for the site. Climatological characteristics were derived from observation-based climate data provided by the Inter-Sectoral Impact Model Intercomparison Project (ISIMIP, www.isimip.org). Parameters were calculated as the average across each 30-year period. For 1981-2010, the EWEMBI dataset from ISIMIP2a was used. For the two future periods (2021-2050 and 2071-2099) ISIMIP2b climate data based on four CMIP5 global climate models were used. For future projections, two Representative Concentration Pathways (RCP) were used. RCP 2.6 is a scenario with strong mitigation measures in which global temperatures would likely rise below 2C. RCP 6.0 is a scenario with medium emissions in which global temperatures would likely rise up to 3C by 2100. For the number of days with heavy precipitation events, the 98th percentile of all precipitation days (>1mm/d) was calculated for the 1979-2013 reference period as a threshold for a heavy precipitation event. Then, for each year, the number of days above that threshold was derived. The figures on temperature and precipitation anomaly show the deviation from the mean temperature and mean precipitation for the 1979-2013 reference period.


The estimated exposure to future extreme climate impact events (crop failure, drought, river flood, wildfire, tropical cyclone, and heatwave) is based on a published dataset by Lange et al. 2020 derived from ISIMIP2b data. The same global climate models and RCPs as described above were used. Within each 30-year period, the number of years with an extreme event and the average proportion of the site affected were calculated (see Kiribou et al. subm. for details).
The estimated exposure to future extreme climate impact events (crop failure, drought, river flood, wildfire, tropical cyclone, and heatwave) is based on a published dataset by Lange et al. 2020 derived from ISIMIP2b data. The same global climate models and RCPs as described above were used. Within each 30-year period, the number of years with an extreme event and the average proportion of the site affected were calculated ([[#R02283|Kiribou et al. 2024]]).


'''Table 8. Estimated past and projected climatological characteristics in Niokolo-Koba National Park'''
'''Table 8. Estimated past and projected climatological characteristics in Niokolo-Koba National Park'''
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|130.4
|130.4
|131.1
|131.1
|132.19999999999999
|132.2
|136.19999999999999
|136.2
|-
|-
|No. days with heavy precipitation (per year)
|No. days with heavy precipitation (per year)
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|26.39
|26.39
|4.5
|4.5
|37.299999999999997
|37.3
|-
|-
|Heatwave
|Heatwave
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|0.71
|0.71
|2.75
|2.75
|1.1399999999999999
|1.14
|1.5
|1.5
|0.94
|0.94
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|1.21
|1.21
|30
|30
|1.0900000000000001
|1.09
|29
|29
|1.2
|1.2
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|}
|}


<div><ul><li style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top;"> [[File:PrecipAnomaly_Niokolo_Koba_NP.png| 450px | thumb| none | Precipitation anomaly in Niokolo-Koba National Park]] </li><li style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top;"> [[File:TempAnomaly_Niokolo_Koba_NP.png | 450px | thumb| none | Temperature anomaly in Niokolo-Koba National Park]] </li></ul></div>


= External links =
= External links =
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= References =
= References =


BirdLife International. 2019. Important Bird Areas factsheet: Parc National du Niokolo-Koba. Online: [http://datazone.birdlife.org/site/factsheet/parc-national-du-niokolo-koba-iba-senegal  www.birdlife.org]
<span id="R01377"></span>BirdLife International. 2019. Important Bird Areas factsheet: Parc National du Niokolo-Koba. Online: [http://datazone.birdlife.org/site/factsheet/parc-national-du-niokolo-koba-iba-senegal  www.birdlife.org]
 
<span id="R01378"></span>Carter, J. (2003). Senegal. In Kormos, R., & Boesch, C. (Eds.), ''Regional Action Plan for the Conservation of Chimpanzees in West Africa''. Washington DC: IUCN/SSC Primate Specialist Group and Conservation International.


Carter et al. 2003.Senegal. In: Kormos and Boesch (eds) Regional Action Plan for the Conservation of Chimpanzees in West Africa. IUCN/SSC Primate Specialist Group and Conservation International, Washington DC.
<span id="R01379"></span>de Bournonville, D. (1967). Contribution à l'étude du chimpanzé en République de Guinée. Dakar: IFAN.


De Bournonville D. 1967. Contribution à l’étude du chimpanzé en République de Guinee. Bulletin de l’Institute Fondamental d’Afrique Noire, Serie A 24, 1188–1269.
<span id="R01380"></span>Henschel, P., Coad, L., Burton, C., Chataigner, B., Dunn, A., MacDonald, D., …, & Hunter, L. T. B. (2014). The Lion in West Africa Is Critically Endangered. ''PLoS ONE'', 9(1), e83500. [https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0083500 doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0083500]


Henschel P et al. 2014. The lion in West Africa is Critically Endangered, PLoS ONE 9(1): e83500.
<span id="R01381"></span>Kühl, H. S., Boesch, C., Kulik, L., Haas, F., Arandjelovic, M., Dieguez, P., …, & Kalan, A. K. (2019). Human impact erodes chimpanzee behavioral diversity. ''Science'', 363(6434), 1453-1455. [https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aau4532 doi:10.1126/science.aau4532]


Kühl HS et al. 2019. Human impact erodes chimpanzee behavioral diversity. Science. 363, 1453–1455.
<span id="R01382"></span>Lindshield, S., Bogart, S. L., Gueye, M., Ndiaye, P. I., & Pruetz, J. D. (2019). Informing Protection Efforts for Critically Endangered Chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus) and Sympatric Mammals amidst Rapid Growth of Extractive Industries in Senegal. ''Folia Primatologica'', 90(2), 124-136. [https://doi.org/10.1159/000496145 doi:10.1159/000496145]


Lindshield S et al. 2019. Informing Protection Efforts for Critically Endangered Chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus) and Sympatric Mammals amidst Rapid Growth of Extractive Industries in Senegal. Folia Primatologica 90: 124-136.
<span id="R01383"></span>Marchant LF & McGrew WC. 2005. Percussive technology: chimpanzee baobab smashing and the evolutionary modelling of hominin knapping. In: Roux & Bril (eds) Stone knapping – the necessary conditions for a uniquely hominin behaviour.


Marchant LF & McGrew WC. 2005. Percussive technology: chimpanzee baobab smashing and the evolutionary modelling of hominin knapping. In: Roux & Bril (eds) Stone knapping – the necessary conditions for a uniquely hominin behaviour.
<span id="R01384"></span>McGrew, W. C., Baldwin, P. J., & Tutin, C. E. G. (1981). Chimpanzees in a hot, dry and open habitat: Mt. Assirik, Senegal, West Africa. ''Journal of Human Evolution'', 10(3), 227-244. [https://doi.org/10.1016/s0047-2484(81)80061-9 doi:10.1016/s0047-2484(81)80061-9]


McGrew WC et al. 1981. Chimpanzees in a hot, dry and open habitat: Mt. Assirik, Senegal, West Africa. Journal of Human Evolution, 10, 227–244.
<span id="R01385"></span>McGrew WC et al. 2003. Ethnoarchaeology and elementary technology of unhabituated wild chimpanzees at Assirik, Senegal, West Africa. PaleoAnthropology 5(2):1–20 [https://paleoanthropology.org/ojs/index.php/paleo/article/view/470 link]


McGrew WC et al. 2003. Ethnoarchaeology and elementary technology of unhabituated wild chimpanzees at Assirik, Senegal, West Africa. PaleoAnthropology 5(2):1–20
<span id="R01386"></span>McGrew, W. C., Baldwin, P. J., Marchant, L. F., Pruetz, J. D., & Tutin, C. E. G. (2014). Chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus) and their mammalian sympatriates: Mt. Assirik, Niokolo-Koba National Park, Senegal. ''Primates'', 55(4), 525-532. [https://doi.org/10.1007/s10329-014-0434-2 doi:10.1007/s10329-014-0434-2]


McGrew WC et al. 2014. Chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus) and their mammalian sympatriates: Mt. Assirik, Niokolo-Koba National Park, Senegal. Primates 55: 525–532.
<span id="R01387"></span>Pruetz, J. D., Marchant, L. F., Arno, J., & McGrew, W. C. (2002). Survey of Savanna Chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus) in Southeastern Sénégal. ''American Journal of Primatology'', 58(1), 35-43. [https://doi.org/10.1002/ajp.10035 doi:10.1002/ajp.10035]


Pruetz JD et al. 2002. Survey of savannah chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus) in south-eastern Sénégal. American Journal of Primatology 58: 35–43.
<span id="R01388"></span>Pruetz, J. D., Fulton, S. J., Marchant, L. F., McGrew, W. C., Schiel, M., & Waller, M. (2008). Arboreal nesting as anti‐predator adaptation by savanna chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus) in southeastern Senegal. ''American Journal of Primatology'', 70(4), 393-401. [https://doi.org/10.1002/ajp.20508 doi:10.1002/ajp.20508]


Pruetz et al. 2008. Arboreal nesting as anti-predator adaptation by savanna chimpanzees in southeastern Senegal. American Journal of Primatology 70: 393-401
<span id="R01389"></span>Pruetz, J. D., Ballahira, R., Camara, W., Lindshield, S., Marshack, J. L., Olson, A., …, & Villalobos-Flores, U. (2012). Update on the Assirik Chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes verus) Population in Niokolo Koba National Park, Senegal. ''Pan Africa News'', 19(1), 8-11. [https://doi.org/10.5134/157936 doi:10.5134/157936]


Pruetz JD et al. 2012. Update on the Assirik chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes verus) population in Niokolo Koba National Park, Senegal. Pan Africa News 19: 8–11.
<span id="R01390"></span>Tutin, C. E. G., McGrew, W. C., & Baldwin, P. J. (1983). Social organization of savanna-dwelling chimpanzees,Pan troglodytes verus, at Mt. Assirik, Senegal. ''Primates'', 24(2), 154-173. [https://doi.org/10.1007/bf02381079 doi:10.1007/bf02381079]


Tutin CEG et al. 1983. Social organization of savannah-dwelling chimpanzees, Pan troglodytes verus, at Mt. Assirik, Senegal. Primates 24: 154–173.
<span id="R01391"></span>UNEP-WCMC, IUCN. 2019. Protected Planet: The World Database on Protected Areas (WDPA), Cambridge, UK: UNEP-WCMC and IUCN Online: [https://www.protectedplanet.net/niokolo-koba-national-park  www.protectedplanet.net] [https://web.archive.org/web/20190919232508/https://www.protectedplanet.net/lagoas-de-cufada-natural-park link]


UNEP-WCMC, IUCN. 2019. Protected Planet: The World Database on Protected Areas (WDPA), Cambridge, UK: UNEP-WCMC and IUCN Online: [https://www.protectedplanet.net/niokolo-koba-national-park  www.protectedplanet.net]
<span id="R01392"></span>UNESCO. 2019a. Niokolo-Koba National Park. Online: [https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/153/    whc.unesco.org]


UNESCO. 2019a. Niokolo-Koba National Park. Online: [https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/153/   whc.unesco.org]
<span id="R01393"></span>UNESCO. 2019b. State of Conservation - Niokolo-Koba National Park. Online: [https://whc.unesco.org/en/soc/3851  whc.unesco.org/soc]


UNESCO. 2019b. State of Conservation - Niokolo-Koba National Park. Online: [https://whc.unesco.org/en/soc/3851  whc.unesco.org/soc]
<span id="R02283"></span>Kiribou, R., Tehoda, P., Chukwu, O., Bempah, G., Kühl, H. S., Ferreira, J., …, & Heinicke, S. (2024). Exposure of African ape sites to climate change impacts. ''PLOS Climate'', 3(2), e0000345. [https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pclm.0000345 doi:10.1371/journal.pclm.0000345]






'''Page created by: '''APES Atlas Team''' Date:''' 2019-11-21
'''Page created by: '''APES Atlas Team''' Date:''' 2019-11-21

Latest revision as of 17:54, 15 October 2026

West Africa > Senegal > Niokolo-Koba National Park

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Summary

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  • Western chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus) are present in Niokolo-Koba National Park.
  • It has been estimated that 23 individuals occur at the site.
  • The chimpanzee population trend is estimated to be stable.
  • This site has a total size of 9130 km².
  • Key threats to chimpanzees are illegal bushmeat hunting and mining activities.
  • The park management implements anti-poaching patrols, roadblocks and supports communities around the park.
  • Niokolo-Koba National Park is contiguous with Badiar National Park in Guinea.

Site characteristics

The Niokolo-Koba National Park (also called Parc National du Niokolo Koba – PNNK) is located in southeastern Senegal and is contiguous with Badiar National Park in northern Guinea. Niokolo-Koba National Park has been established in 1954 (UNEP-WCMC & IUCN 2019). PNNK is also a World Heritage Site since 1981 and has been listed as a World Heritage site in danger since 2007 (UNESCO 2019a, UNESCO 2019b). It is also an Important Bird Area (BirdLife International 2019).

Most of the park is flat, but there are several hills in its eastern part with Mt Assirik being the highest elevation with 311 m (BirdLife International 2019). PNNK is characterized by savanna with gallery forests, grasslands, bamboo forests, and seasonally inundated flood-plains and marshes (BirdLife International 2019, Lindshield et al. 2019). The river Gambie and several of its tributaries cross the park.

PNNK features a rich biodiversity with more than 70 mammal species, 329 bird species, 36 reptile species reptiles, 20 amphibian species and many species of invertebrates (BirdLife International 2019). Some of the present mammal species include lion (Panthera leo), leopard (Panthera pardus), African civet (Civettictis civetta), spotted hyena (Crocuta crocuta), roan antelope (Hippotragus equinus), African buffalo (Syncerus caffer), and African elephant (Loxodonta africana, Henschel et al. 2014, McGrew et al. 2014, Lindshield et al. 2019). In addition to western chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus), the presence of several primate species has been confirmed, including green monkey (Chlorocebus sabaeus), patas monkey (Erythrocebus patas), lesser bushbaby (Galago senegalensis), and Guinea baboon (Papio papio, Lindshield et al. 2019). There are also more than 1500 plant species (BirdLife International 2019).

Table 1. Basic site information for Niokolo-Koba National Park

Species Pan troglodytes verus
Area 9,130.0 km²
Coordinates Lat: 13.031594 , Lon: -13.068463
Type of site Protected area (National Park)
Habitat types Savanna, Shrubland, Grassland, Subtropical/tropical dry forest, Wetlands (lakes, rivers, streams, bogs, marshes)
Type of governance

Types of sites Governance types Habitat types

Ape status

In 1967, De Bournonville confirmed the presence of chimpanzees in Niokolo-Koba National Park (De Bournonville 1967). McGrew et al. (1981) estimated the chimpanzee population size to be around 24 individuals based on studying unhabituated chimpanzees around Mt. Assirik. Similarly, Pruetz et al. (2002) estimated a population size of 23 individuals based on nest count surveys.

Table 2. Ape population estimates reported for Niokolo-Koba National Park

Species Year Occurrence Encounter or vistation rate (nests/km; ind/day) Density estimate [ind./ km²] (95% CI) Abundance estimate (95% CI) Survey area Sampling method Analytical framework Source Comments A.P.E.S. database ID
Pan troglodytes verus 1976-1979 0.09 24.0 Assirik area Full count McGrew et al 1981
Pan troglodytes verus 2000 0.13 23.0 Assirik area Line transects Pruetz et al. 2002
Pan troglodytes verus 1967 Present PNNK Interviews, Reconnaissance walk De Bournonville 1967

Sampling methods Analytical frameworks

Threats

In 2007, Niokolo-Koba National Park was listed as a World Heritage site in danger because of poaching, livestock grazing, and the Sambangalou dam project (UNESCO 2019b). The park is also negatively affected by drought (UNESCO 2019b). A road bisects the park and a large-scale gold mining operation at the eastern border of PNNK exerts further pressure on the park’s resources (Lindshield et al. 2019). In addition, anthropogenic bushfires have been reported, as well as illegal logging and fishing (BirdLife International 2019, Lindshield et al. 2019).

There are plans to construct a dam 930 km upstream from the mouth of the Gambia River. While contributing to development by providing energy and irrigation opportunities, there are fears of environmental and social risks, especially for downstream wetlands and indirect impacts caused by population resettlement (BirdLife International 2019).

Table 3. Threats to apes reported for Niokolo-Koba National Park

Category Specific threats Threat level Description Year of threat
11 Climate change & severe weather 11.2 Droughts Medium (30-70% of population affected) Droughts cause the drying of rivers and reduce flooding of marshes and flood-plains, causing damage also to forests (BirdLife International 2019). Ongoing (2019)
2 Agriculture & aquaculture 2.3 Livestock farming & ranching Medium (30-70% of population affected) Livestock grazing (BirdLife International 2019, Lindshield et al. 2019, UNESCO 2019b). Ongoing (2019)
3 Energy production & mining 3.2 Mining & quarrying Present (unknown severity) Artisanal gold mining (BirdLife International 2019, Lindshield et al. 2019, UNESCO 2019b). Ongoing (2019)
4 Transportation & service corridors 4.1 Roads & railroads Medium (30-70% of population affected) A road bisects the park (BirdLife International 2019, Lindshield et al. 2019, UNESCO 2019b). Ongoing (2019)
5 Biological resource use 5.1 Hunting & collecting terrestrial animals Medium (30-70% of population affected) Illegal hunting has been reported (BirdLife International 2019, Lindshield et al. 2019, UNESCO 2019b). Ongoing (2019)
5 Biological resource use 5.3 Logging & wood harvesting Present (unknown severity) Illegal logging has been reported (BirdLife International 2019, Lindshield et al. 2019, UNESCO 2019b). Ongoing (2019)
5 Biological resource use 5.3 Logging & wood harvesting Present (unknown severity) Illegal fishing (BirdLife International 2019). Ongoing (2019)
7 Natural system modifications 7.1 Fire & fire suppression Present (unknown severity) Anthropogenic fires (BirdLife International 2019, Lindshield et al. 2019). Ongoing (2019)

Threats

Conservation activities

Niokolo-Koba National Park is managed by Direction des Parcs Nationaux (DPN). Conservation activities include anti-poaching patrols and road checkpoints (BirdLife International 2019, Lindshield at al. 20019). Park agents also engage with communities living close to the park to discourage illegal behavior, for example by supporting tourist guides, fishermen groups and providing veterinary assistance (BirdLife International 2019, Lindshield at al. 20019). The management plan from 2000 has expired and a request has been submitted to UNESCO to renew the management plan (BirdLife International 2019, UNESCO 2019b).

Table 4. Conservation activities reported for Niokolo-Koba National Park

Category Specific activity Description Implementing organization(s) Year of activity
2 Counter-wildlife crime 2.1 Implement road blocks to inspect cars for illegal ape bushmeat Road checkpoints on the road bisecting the park (Lindshield at al. 20019) Ongoing (2019)
2 Counter-wildlife crime 2.3 Conduct regular anti-poaching patrols Park agents regularly conduct anti-poaching patrols (BirdLife International 2019, Lindshield at al. 20019) Ongoing (2019)
5 Protection & restoration 5.2 Legally protect ape habitat Designated a national park in 1954 (UNEP-WCMC & IUCN 2019) 1954-Ongoing (2026)
7 Economic & other incentives 7.2 Provide non-monetary benefits to local communities for sustainably managing their forest and its wildlife (e.g., better education, infrastructure development) Communities living close to the park are supported , e.g., tourist guides, fishermen groups and providing veterinary assistance (BirdLife International 2019, Lindshield at al. 20019) Ongoing (2019)

Conservation activities

Challenges

Table 5. Challenges reported for Niokolo-Koba National Park

Challenges Specific challenges Source Year(s)
Not reported

Challenges

Enablers

Table 6. Enablers reported for Niokolo-Koba National Park

Enablers Specific enablers Source Year(s)
1 Site management
2 Resources and capacity
3 Engaged community
4 Institutional support
5 Ecological context
6 Safety and stability

Enablers

Research activities

Research on chimpanzees in Niokolo-Koba National Park has been ongoing intermittently since the 1970s. A research site was established near Mt. Assirik by the Stirling African Primate Project (coordinated by William McGrew and Caroline Tutin) in 1976 to study the local chimpanzee community (Carter et al. 2003). Since then a wide variety of studies has been implemented on the ecology and social organization of chimpanzees, including diet, tool use and nesting behavior.


Documented behaviours

Table 7. Behaviours documented for Niokolo-Koba National Park

Category Behavior Observation type Prevalence Observation dates Source Habituation Species Comment
Ant dipping McGrew et al. 2003
Ant eating McGrew et al. 2003
Ant fishing McGrew et al. 2003
Cave use compiled in Kühl et al. 2019
Fruit cleaving Marchant & McGrew 2005
Honey eating McGrew et al. 2003
Honey extraction with tool McGrew et al. 2003
Making ground nests Pruetz et al. 2008
Stone throwing McGrew et al. 2003
Termite eating McGrew et al. 2003
Termite fishing McGrew et al. 2003

Behaviours

Exposure to climate change impacts

As part of a study on the exposure of African great ape sites to climate change impacts, Kiribou et al. (2024) extracted climate data and data on projected extreme climate impact events for the site. Climatological characteristics were derived from observation-based climate data provided by the Inter-Sectoral Impact Model Intercomparison Project (ISIMIP, www.isimip.org). Parameters were calculated as the average across each 30-year period. For 1981-2010, the EWEMBI dataset from ISIMIP2a was used. For the two future periods (2021-2050 and 2071-2099) ISIMIP2b climate data based on four CMIP5 global climate models were used. For future projections, two Representative Concentration Pathways (RCP) were used. RCP 2.6 is a scenario with strong mitigation measures in which global temperatures would likely rise below 2C. RCP 6.0 is a scenario with medium emissions in which global temperatures would likely rise up to 3C by 2100. For the number of days with heavy precipitation events, the 98th percentile of all precipitation days (>1mm/d) was calculated for the 1979-2013 reference period as a threshold for a heavy precipitation event. Then, for each year, the number of days above that threshold was derived. The figures on temperature and precipitation anomaly show the deviation from the mean temperature and mean precipitation for the 1979-2013 reference period.

The estimated exposure to future extreme climate impact events (crop failure, drought, river flood, wildfire, tropical cyclone, and heatwave) is based on a published dataset by Lange et al. 2020 derived from ISIMIP2b data. The same global climate models and RCPs as described above were used. Within each 30-year period, the number of years with an extreme event and the average proportion of the site affected were calculated (Kiribou et al. 2024).

Table 8. Estimated past and projected climatological characteristics in Niokolo-Koba National Park

Value 1981-2010 2021-2050, RCP 2.6 2021-2050, RCP 6.0 2071-2099, RCP 2.6 2071-2099, RCP 6.0
Mean temperature [C] 28.6 29.9 29.7 30.1 31.6
Annual precipitation [mm] 978 975 912 973 855
Max no. consecutive dry days (per year) 131.9 130.4 131.1 132.2 136.2
No. days with heavy precipitation (per year) 2.9 3.4 2.7 3.4 2.7


Table 9. Projected exposure of apes to extreme climate impact events in Niokolo-Koba National Park

Type No. of years with event (2021-2050, RCP 2.6) % of site exposed (2021-2050, RCP 2.6) No. of years with event (2021-2050, RCP 6.0) % of site exposed (2021-2050, RCP 6.0) No. of years with event (2070-2099, RCP 2.6) % of site exposed (2070-2099, RCP 2.6) No. of years with event (2070-2099, RCP 6.0) % of site exposed (2070-2099, RCP 6.0)
Crop failure 10.5 0.17 3.5 0.16 10 0.15 15.5 0.18
Drought 4.5 41.67 3.75 41.59 1.25 26.39 4.5 37.3
Heatwave 2.5 50 1.5 29.17 3 43.75 4 65.56
River flood 2.75 0.71 2.75 1.14 1.5 0.94 1 1.23
Tropical cyclone 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Wildfire 30 1.21 30 1.09 29 1.2 29 2.14


  • Precipitation anomaly in Niokolo-Koba National Park
  • Temperature anomaly in Niokolo-Koba National Park

External links

References

BirdLife International. 2019. Important Bird Areas factsheet: Parc National du Niokolo-Koba. Online: www.birdlife.org

Carter, J. (2003). Senegal. In Kormos, R., & Boesch, C. (Eds.), Regional Action Plan for the Conservation of Chimpanzees in West Africa. Washington DC: IUCN/SSC Primate Specialist Group and Conservation International.

de Bournonville, D. (1967). Contribution à l'étude du chimpanzé en République de Guinée. Dakar: IFAN.

Henschel, P., Coad, L., Burton, C., Chataigner, B., Dunn, A., MacDonald, D., …, & Hunter, L. T. B. (2014). The Lion in West Africa Is Critically Endangered. PLoS ONE, 9(1), e83500. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0083500

Kühl, H. S., Boesch, C., Kulik, L., Haas, F., Arandjelovic, M., Dieguez, P., …, & Kalan, A. K. (2019). Human impact erodes chimpanzee behavioral diversity. Science, 363(6434), 1453-1455. doi:10.1126/science.aau4532

Lindshield, S., Bogart, S. L., Gueye, M., Ndiaye, P. I., & Pruetz, J. D. (2019). Informing Protection Efforts for Critically Endangered Chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus) and Sympatric Mammals amidst Rapid Growth of Extractive Industries in Senegal. Folia Primatologica, 90(2), 124-136. doi:10.1159/000496145

Marchant LF & McGrew WC. 2005. Percussive technology: chimpanzee baobab smashing and the evolutionary modelling of hominin knapping. In: Roux & Bril (eds) Stone knapping – the necessary conditions for a uniquely hominin behaviour.

McGrew, W. C., Baldwin, P. J., & Tutin, C. E. G. (1981). Chimpanzees in a hot, dry and open habitat: Mt. Assirik, Senegal, West Africa. Journal of Human Evolution, 10(3), 227-244. doi:10.1016/s0047-2484(81)80061-9

McGrew WC et al. 2003. Ethnoarchaeology and elementary technology of unhabituated wild chimpanzees at Assirik, Senegal, West Africa. PaleoAnthropology 5(2):1–20 link

McGrew, W. C., Baldwin, P. J., Marchant, L. F., Pruetz, J. D., & Tutin, C. E. G. (2014). Chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus) and their mammalian sympatriates: Mt. Assirik, Niokolo-Koba National Park, Senegal. Primates, 55(4), 525-532. doi:10.1007/s10329-014-0434-2

Pruetz, J. D., Marchant, L. F., Arno, J., & McGrew, W. C. (2002). Survey of Savanna Chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus) in Southeastern Sénégal. American Journal of Primatology, 58(1), 35-43. doi:10.1002/ajp.10035

Pruetz, J. D., Fulton, S. J., Marchant, L. F., McGrew, W. C., Schiel, M., & Waller, M. (2008). Arboreal nesting as anti‐predator adaptation by savanna chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus) in southeastern Senegal. American Journal of Primatology, 70(4), 393-401. doi:10.1002/ajp.20508

Pruetz, J. D., Ballahira, R., Camara, W., Lindshield, S., Marshack, J. L., Olson, A., …, & Villalobos-Flores, U. (2012). Update on the Assirik Chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes verus) Population in Niokolo Koba National Park, Senegal. Pan Africa News, 19(1), 8-11. doi:10.5134/157936

Tutin, C. E. G., McGrew, W. C., & Baldwin, P. J. (1983). Social organization of savanna-dwelling chimpanzees,Pan troglodytes verus, at Mt. Assirik, Senegal. Primates, 24(2), 154-173. doi:10.1007/bf02381079

UNEP-WCMC, IUCN. 2019. Protected Planet: The World Database on Protected Areas (WDPA), Cambridge, UK: UNEP-WCMC and IUCN Online: www.protectedplanet.net link

UNESCO. 2019a. Niokolo-Koba National Park. Online: whc.unesco.org

UNESCO. 2019b. State of Conservation - Niokolo-Koba National Park. Online: whc.unesco.org/soc

Kiribou, R., Tehoda, P., Chukwu, O., Bempah, G., Kühl, H. S., Ferreira, J., …, & Heinicke, S. (2024). Exposure of African ape sites to climate change impacts. PLOS Climate, 3(2), e0000345. doi:10.1371/journal.pclm.0000345


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