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= Site characteristics =
= Site characteristics =


Bwindi Impenetrable National Park is located in southwestern Uganda, on the edge of the Albertine Rift Valley. The area is one of Uganda's oldest and most biologically diverse rainforests, which dates back over 25,000 years ([https://www.ugandawildlife.org/explore-our-parks/parks-by-name-a-z/bwindi-impenetrable-national-park Uganda Wildlife Authority]). Encompassing a series of steep ridges and valleys, Bwindi is the source of five major rivers, which flow into Lake Edward. The park is famous for being home to almost half of the world's mountain gorilla population ([https://www.ugandawildlife.org/explore-our-parks/parks-by-name-a-z/bwindi-impenetrable-national-park Uganda Wildlife Authority]). The site is a designated Important Bird Area, with 347 bird species documented in the forest, including 23 endemic species to the Albertine Rift (BirdLife International 2020). Bwindi was gazetted as a National Park in 1991 and declared a ([https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/682/ UNESCO Natural World Heritage Site]) in 1994.
[[#R02021|Bwindi Impenetrable National Park]] is located in southwestern Uganda, on the edge of the Albertine Rift Valley. The area is one of Uganda's oldest and most biologically diverse rainforests, which dates back over 25,000 years ([https://www.ugandawildlife.org/explore-our-parks/parks-by-name-a-z/bwindi-impenetrable-national-park Uganda Wildlife Authority]). Encompassing a series of steep ridges and valleys, Bwindi is the source of five major rivers, which flow into Lake Edward. The park is famous for being home to almost half of the world's mountain gorilla population ([https://www.ugandawildlife.org/explore-our-parks/parks-by-name-a-z/bwindi-impenetrable-national-park Uganda Wildlife Authority]). The site is a designated Important Bird Area, with 347 bird species documented in the forest, including 23 endemic species to the Albertine Rift (BirdLife International 2020). Bwindi was gazetted as a National Park in 1991 and declared a ([https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/682/ UNESCO Natural World Heritage Site]) in 1994.


'''Table 1. Basic site information for Bwindi Impenetrable National Park'''
'''Table 1. Basic site information for Bwindi Impenetrable National Park'''
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= Ape status =
= Ape status =


The park is home to one of the two subpopulations of mountain gorillas in the world, the Bwindi-Sarambwe subpopulation (Hickey et al. 2018). Increases in both the Virunga Massif and the Bwindi-Sarambwe subpopulations led to a change in the IUCN Red List classification from Critically Endangered to Endangered in 2018 (Hickey et al. 2018). In spite of this increase, the overall population size is still small.
The park is home to one of the two subpopulations of mountain gorillas in the world, the Bwindi-Sarambwe subpopulation ([[#R00303|Hickey et al. 2018]]). Increases in both the Virunga Massif and the Bwindi-Sarambwe subpopulations led to a change in the IUCN Red List classification from Critically Endangered to Endangered in 2018 ([[#R00303|Hickey et al. 2018]]). In spite of this increase, the overall population size is still small.


'''Table 2. Ape population estimates reported for Bwindi Impenetrable National Park'''
'''Table 2. Ape population estimates reported for Bwindi Impenetrable National Park'''
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|-
|-
|''Gorilla beringei beringei''
|''Gorilla beringei beringei''
|2011
|2018
|
|
|
|
|
|
|400.0
|459.0
|Bwindi Impenetrable National Park
|Bwindi-Sarambwe ecosystem
|Genetic (dung/hair)
|Reconnaissance walk
|
|Roy et al. 2014
|
|
|[[#R00303|Hickey et al. 2018]]
|Sweep method, with high density of reconnaissance trails covering the forest.
|
|
|-
|-
|''Gorilla beringei beringei''
|''Gorilla beringei beringei''
|1997
|2011
|
|
|
|
|
|
|292.0
|400.0
|Bwindi Impenetrable National Park
|Bwindi Impenetrable National Park
|Reconnaissance walk
|Genetic (dung/hair)
|
|[[#R00311|Roy et al. 2014]]
|
|
|McNeilage et al. 2001
|Sweep method, with high density of reconnaissance trails covering the forest.
|
|
|-
|-
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|Reconnaissance walk
|Reconnaissance walk
|
|
|McNeilage et al. 2006
|[[#R00308|McNeilage et al. 2006]]
|Sweep method, with high density of reconnaissance trails covering the forest.
|Sweep method, with high density of reconnaissance trails covering the forest.
|
|UGA0009
|-
|-
|''Gorilla beringei beringei''
|''Gorilla beringei beringei''
|2018
|1997
|
|
|
|
|
|
|459.0
|292.0
|Bwindi-Sarambwe ecosystem
|Bwindi Impenetrable National Park
|Reconnaissance walk
|Reconnaissance walk
|
|
|Hickey et al. 2018
|[[#R00307|McNeilage et al. 2001]]
|Sweep method, with high density of reconnaissance trails covering the forest.
|Sweep method, with high density of reconnaissance trails covering the forest.
|
|UGA0007
|}
|}


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|1.1 Residential areas
|1.1 Residential areas
|Present (unknown severity)
|Present (unknown severity)
|Human encroachment near park edges, with a lot of informal settlements (Basiibye, personal observation, 2025; McNeilage et al. 2006)
|Human encroachment near park edges, with a lot of informal settlements (Basiibye, personal observation, 2025; [[#R00308|McNeilage et al. 2006]])
|2006-Ongoing (2025)
|2006-Ongoing (2025)
|-
|-
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|11.1 Habitat shifting & alteration
|11.1 Habitat shifting & alteration
|Present (unknown severity)
|Present (unknown severity)
|Increased temperatures and modified rainfall patterns likely to cause changes in food availability and habitat quality (Hickey et al. 2018).
|Increased temperatures and modified rainfall patterns likely to cause changes in food availability and habitat quality ([[#R00303|Hickey et al. 2018]]).
|Ongoing (2018)
|Ongoing (2018)
|-
|-
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|5.1 Hunting & collecting terrestrial animals
|5.1 Hunting & collecting terrestrial animals
|Low (up to 30% of population affected)
|Low (up to 30% of population affected)
|Signs of illegal hunting reported during a census (Bitariho et al. 2022).
|Signs of illegal hunting reported during a census ([[#R00297|Bitariho et al. 2022]]).
|1994-Ongoing (2022)
|1994-Ongoing (2022)
|-
|-
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|5.1.2 Unintentional effects
|5.1.2 Unintentional effects
|Present (unknown severity)
|Present (unknown severity)
|Poaching as a non-target species, e.g., snares set up for other animals (Hickey et al. 2018). Great apes have sustained injuries after being caught in traps probably intended for other animals (Robbins pers. comm. 2025).
|Poaching as a non-target species, e.g., snares set up for other animals ([[#R00303|Hickey et al. 2018]]). Great apes have sustained injuries after being caught in traps probably intended for other animals (Robbins pers. comm. 2025).
|Ongoing (2025)
|Ongoing (2025)
|-
|-
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|5.1.5 Persecution/human wildlife conflict
|5.1.5 Persecution/human wildlife conflict
|Present (unknown severity)
|Present (unknown severity)
|Bwindi gorillas appear to crop-raid because of the availability of palatable foods at the edge of the park, not due to a lack of dietary items in the park (Hickey et al. 2018).
|Bwindi gorillas appear to crop-raid because of the availability of palatable foods at the edge of the park, not due to a lack of dietary items in the park ([[#R00303|Hickey et al. 2018]]).
|Ongoing (2018)
|Ongoing (2018)
|-
|-
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|5.2 Gathering terrestrial plants
|5.2 Gathering terrestrial plants
|Present (unknown severity)
|Present (unknown severity)
|Wild honey and wild yam collection (Bitariho et al. 2022).
|Wild honey and wild yam collection ([[#R00297|Bitariho et al. 2022]]).
|1994-Ongoing (2022)
|1994-Ongoing (2022)
|-
|-
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|5.3 Logging & wood harvesting
|5.3 Logging & wood harvesting
|Present (unknown severity)
|Present (unknown severity)
|Collection of firewood and tree cuttings (Bitariho et al. 2022).
|Collection of firewood and tree cuttings ([[#R00297|Bitariho et al. 2022]]).
|1994-Ongoing (2022)
|1994-Ongoing (2022)
|-
|-
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|6.3 Other human disturbances
|6.3 Other human disturbances
|Present (unknown severity)
|Present (unknown severity)
|Human presence due to tourism, conservation and scientific work, camps for security forces, etc., all of which pose some risk of disturbance and disease transmission (Hickey et al. 2018).
|Human presence due to tourism, conservation and scientific work, camps for security forces, etc., all of which pose some risk of disturbance and disease transmission ([[#R00303|Hickey et al. 2018]]).
|Ongoing (2018)
|Ongoing (2018)
|-
|-
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|7.1 Fire & fire suppression
|7.1 Fire & fire suppression
|Present (unknown severity)
|Present (unknown severity)
|2.64 km² burnt (≈0.8% of park area) in 1999 and 0.2 km² burnt (≈0.05%) in 2000 (Kasangaki et al. 2001). Most fires are human induced, started by illegal honey collectors and some fires spread from community agricultural fields(UWA 2014, Kasangaki et al. 2001).
|2.64 km² burnt (≈0.8% of park area) in 1999 and 0.2 km² burnt (≈0.05%) in 2000 ([[#R00306|Kasangaki et al. 2001]]). Most fires are human induced, started by illegal honey collectors and some fires spread from community agricultural fields([[#R00315|UWA 2014]], [[#R00306|Kasangaki et al. 2001]]).
|1990-Ongoing (2014)
|1990-Ongoing (2014)
|-
|-
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|7.3 Other ecosystem modifications
|7.3 Other ecosystem modifications
|Low (up to 30% of population affected)
|Low (up to 30% of population affected)
|A 2002 survey revealed gorillas avoided disturbed areas with high human activity; this reflected habitat fragmentation and altered habitat quality and movement patterns (McNeilage et al. 2006). However, more gorillas are continuously using disturbed and human impacted areas but threat of fragmentation and alteration of habitat quality persists (Basiibye, personal observation, 2025).
|A 2002 survey revealed gorillas avoided disturbed areas with high human activity; this reflected habitat fragmentation and altered habitat quality and movement patterns ([[#R00308|McNeilage et al. 2006]]). However, more gorillas are continuously using disturbed and human impacted areas but threat of fragmentation and alteration of habitat quality persists (Basiibye, personal observation, 2025).
|2002-Ongoing (2025)
|2002-Ongoing (2025)
|-
|-
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|8.4 Pathogens
|8.4 Pathogens
|High (more than 70% of population affected)
|High (more than 70% of population affected)
|Vulnerability to human pathogens, and outbreaks of respiratory virus diseases and gastrointestinal parasite infections (Hickey et al. 2018).
|Vulnerability to human pathogens, and outbreaks of respiratory virus diseases and gastrointestinal parasite infections ([[#R00303|Hickey et al. 2018]]).
|Ongoing (2018)
|Ongoing (2018)
|-
|-
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|1 Development impact mitigation
|1 Development impact mitigation
|1.5 Install mechanical barriers or use natural hedges to deter apes
|1.5 Install mechanical barriers or use natural hedges to deter apes
|Construct and maintain barriers to control problem animals (UWA 2014). Intended to reduce crop raiding and human–wildlife conflict, by gorillas. Physical barriers such as Mauritius thorn hedges, trenching, and tea planting have been used in several community zones, especially around Nkuringo and Buhoma, to deter gorilla movement (IGCP 2022).
|Construct and maintain barriers to control problem animals ([[#R00315|UWA 2014]]). Intended to reduce crop raiding and human–wildlife conflict, by gorillas. Physical barriers such as Mauritius thorn hedges, trenching, and tea planting have been used in several community zones, especially around Nkuringo and Buhoma, to deter gorilla movement ([[#R00304|IGCP 2022]]).
|HuGo (Human–Gorilla Conflict Resolution) squads under Uganda Wildlife Authority, International Gorilla Conservation Programme (IGCP)
|HuGo (Human–Gorilla Conflict Resolution) squads under Uganda Wildlife Authority, International Gorilla Conservation Programme (IGCP)
|2000-Ongoing (2022)
|2000-Ongoing (2022)
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|2 Counter-wildlife crime
|2 Counter-wildlife crime
|2.14 Employ hunters in the conservation sector to reduce their impact
|2.14 Employ hunters in the conservation sector to reduce their impact
|50 reformed poachers from the Nteko and Kakoka communities planted four kilometers of Mauritius thorny hedge along the park boundary, to deter problem animal and reduced human wildlife conflict but most importantly involving ex-poachers in conservation and supporting livelihood. The participants earned a daily wage of about $42 (IGCP 2022). Community members, including former poachers, are trained to safely guide gorillas back into the forest when they stray into villages, many employed as porters and guides (Basiibye, personal observation, 2025; Bwindi Uganda Gorilla Trekking 2025).
|50 reformed poachers from the Nteko and Kakoka communities planted four kilometers of Mauritius thorny hedge along the park boundary, to deter problem animal and reduced human wildlife conflict but most importantly involving ex-poachers in conservation and supporting livelihood. The participants earned a daily wage of about $42 ([[#R00304|IGCP 2022]]). Community members, including former poachers, are trained to safely guide gorillas back into the forest when they stray into villages, many employed as porters and guides (Basiibye, personal observation, 2025; [[#R00299|Bwindi Uganda Gorilla Trekking 2025]]).


|HuGo (Human–Gorilla Conflict Resolution) squads under Uganda Wildlife Authority, International Gorilla Conservation Programme (IGCP)
|HuGo (Human–Gorilla Conflict Resolution) squads under Uganda Wildlife Authority, International Gorilla Conservation Programme (IGCP)
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|3 Species health
|3 Species health
|3.10 Treat sick/injured apes
|3.10 Treat sick/injured apes
|[https://www.gorilladoctors.org/about-us/ Gorilla Doctors] is an international veterinary and conservation NGO that provides health monitoring and veterinary care to endangered mountain gorillas. A veterinary program began in 1994.
|[[#R02020|Gorilla Doctors]] is an international veterinary and conservation NGO that provides health monitoring and veterinary care to endangered mountain gorillas. A veterinary program began in 1994.
|Gorilla Doctors
|Gorilla Doctors
|1994-Ongoing (2025)
|1994-Ongoing (2025)
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|3 Species health
|3 Species health
|3.11 Implement continuous health monitoring/permanent vet on site
|3.11 Implement continuous health monitoring/permanent vet on site
|[https://www.gorilladoctors.org/about-us/ Gorilla Doctors] is an international veterinary and conservation NGO that provides health monitoring and veterinary care to endangered mountain gorillas. A veterinary program began in 1994.
|[[#R02020|Gorilla Doctors]] is an international veterinary and conservation NGO that provides health monitoring and veterinary care to endangered mountain gorillas. A veterinary program began in 1994.
|Gorilla Doctors
|Gorilla Doctors
|1994-Ongoing (2025)
|1994-Ongoing (2025)
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|3 Species health
|3 Species health
|3.2 Keep safety distance to habituated apes
|3.2 Keep safety distance to habituated apes
|[https://www.bwindiimpenetrablenationalpark.com/gorilla-trekking/ Bwindi Impenetrable National Park]
|[[#R02021|Bwindi Impenetrable National Park]]
|Uganda Wildlife Authority
|Uganda Wildlife Authority
|Ongoing (2025)
|Ongoing (2025)
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|3 Species health
|3 Species health
|3.3 Limit time that researchers/tourists are allowed to spend with habituated apes
|3.3 Limit time that researchers/tourists are allowed to spend with habituated apes
|[https://www.bwindiimpenetrablenationalpark.com/gorilla-trekking/ Bwindi Impenetrable National Park]
|[[#R02021|Bwindi Impenetrable National Park]]
|Uganda Wildlife Authority
|Uganda Wildlife Authority
|Ongoing (2025)
|Ongoing (2025)
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|5 Protection & restoration
|5 Protection & restoration
|5.1 Create buffer zones around protected ape habitat
|5.1 Create buffer zones around protected ape habitat
|Acquire land to act as a buffer area around the necks (UWA 2014), in order to reduce human–gorilla conflict in narrow boundary zones (UWA 2014; suggested in the management plan, no recent report mentions its implementation).Private people (such as owners of tourists lodges) buy land near park and pay people to move away (Basiibye, personal observation 2025).
|Acquire land to act as a buffer area around the necks ([[#R00315|UWA 2014]]), in order to reduce human–gorilla conflict in narrow boundary zones ([[#R00315|UWA 2014]]; suggested in the management plan, no recent report mentions its implementation).Private people (such as owners of tourists lodges) buy land near park and pay people to move away (Basiibye, personal observation 2025).
|Uganda Wildlife Authority (UWA), International Gorilla Conservation Programme (IGCP), Private individuals
|Uganda Wildlife Authority (UWA), International Gorilla Conservation Programme (IGCP), Private individuals
|1991-Ongoing (2025)
|1991-Ongoing (2025)
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|5 Protection & restoration
|5 Protection & restoration
|5.5 Demarcate and enforce boundaries of protected areas
|5.5 Demarcate and enforce boundaries of protected areas
|Negotiate and sign boundary management agreements with communities, plant new, appropriate and live markers along the boundary (direct physical demarcation) (UWA, 2014). No recent evidence for implementation (Basiibye, personal observation 2025).
|Negotiate and sign boundary management agreements with communities, plant new, appropriate and live markers along the boundary (direct physical demarcation) ([[#R00315|UWA, 2014]]). No recent evidence for implementation (Basiibye, personal observation 2025).
|Uganda Wildlife Authority, Institute of Tropical Forest Conservation (ITFC)
|Uganda Wildlife Authority, Institute of Tropical Forest Conservation (ITFC)
|Ongoing (2014)
|Ongoing (2014)
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|6 Species management
|6 Species management
|6.2 Guard habituated ape groups to ensure their safety/well-being
|6.2 Guard habituated ape groups to ensure their safety/well-being
|The ([https://www.gorilladoctors.org/about-us/where-we-work/ Gorilla Doctors]) who work at Bwindi Impenetrable National Park regularly monitor the health of habituated gorillas.
|The ([[#R02022|Gorilla Doctors]]) who work at Bwindi Impenetrable National Park regularly monitor the health of habituated gorillas.
|Uganda Wildlife Authority, Gorilla Doctors
|Uganda Wildlife Authority, Gorilla Doctors
|Ongoing (2025)
|Ongoing (2025)
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|7 Economic & other incentives
|7 Economic & other incentives
|7.1 Provide monetary benefits to local communities for sustainably managing their forest and its wildlife (e.g., REDD, alternative income, employment)
|7.1 Provide monetary benefits to local communities for sustainably managing their forest and its wildlife (e.g., REDD, alternative income, employment)
|Local people are hired to work in conservation management and initiatives (Bitariho et al. 2022, Robbins pers. comm. 2025).
|Local people are hired to work in conservation management and initiatives ([[#R00297|Bitariho et al. 2022]], Robbins pers. comm. 2025).
|Uganda Wildlife Authority
|Uganda Wildlife Authority
|1994-Ongoing (2025)
|1994-Ongoing (2025)
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|7 Economic & other incentives
|7 Economic & other incentives
|7.2 Provide non-monetary benefits to local communities for sustainably managing their forest and its wildlife (e.g., better education, infrastructure development)
|7.2 Provide non-monetary benefits to local communities for sustainably managing their forest and its wildlife (e.g., better education, infrastructure development)
|Community members receive basic education and essential life skills training (Bitariho et al. 2022, Robbins pers. comm. 2025). Water and sanitation and household income-generating projects have been  the most funded activities (Bitariho et al. 2022).
|Community members receive basic education and essential life skills training ([[#R00297|Bitariho et al. 2022]], Robbins pers. comm. 2025). Water and sanitation and household income-generating projects have been  the most funded activities ([[#R00297|Bitariho et al. 2022]]).
|Uganda Wildlife Authority
|Uganda Wildlife Authority
|1994-Ongoing (2025)
|1994-Ongoing (2025)
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|8 Permanent presence
|8 Permanent presence
|8.2 Run tourist projects and ensure permanent human presence at site
|8.2 Run tourist projects and ensure permanent human presence at site
|[https://www.bwindiimpenetrablenationalpark.com/gorilla-trekking/ Bwindi Impenetrable National Park]
|[[#R02021|Bwindi Impenetrable National Park]]
|Uganda Wildlife Authority
|Uganda Wildlife Authority
|1993-Ongoing (2025)
|1993-Ongoing (2025)
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|2 Resources and capacity
|2 Resources and capacity
|2.1 Lack of capacity/training
|2.1 Lack of capacity/training
|UWA 2001, UWA 2014, Basiibye personal obs. 2025
|[[#R00314|UWA 2001]], [[#R00315|UWA 2014]], Basiibye S. pers. comm. 2025
|2001-Ongoing (2025)
|2001-Ongoing (2025)
|-
|-
|2 Resources and capacity
|2 Resources and capacity
|2.2 Lack of staff
|2.2 Lack of staff
|UWA 2001, UWA 2014
|[[#R00314|UWA 2001]], [[#R00315|UWA 2014]]
|2001-Ongoing (2014)
|2001-Ongoing (2014)
|-
|-
|2 Resources and capacity
|2 Resources and capacity
|2.3 General lack of funding
|2.3 General lack of funding
|UWA 2001, UWA 2014
|[[#R00314|UWA 2001]], [[#R00315|UWA 2014]]
|2001-Ongoing (2014)
|2001-Ongoing (2014)
|-
|-
|2 Resources and capacity
|2 Resources and capacity
|2.5 Lack of equipment/transportation
|2.5 Lack of equipment/transportation
|UWA 2001, UWA 2014, Basiibye personal obs. 2025
|[[#R00314|UWA 2001]], [[#R00315|UWA 2014]], Basiibye S. pers. comm. 2025
|2001-Ongoing (2025)
|2001-Ongoing (2025)
|-
|-
|3 Engaged community
|3 Engaged community
|3.1 General lack of community engagement or support
|3.1 General lack of community engagement or support
|UWA 2001, UWA 2014
|[[#R00314|UWA 2001]], [[#R00315|UWA 2014]]
|2001-Ongoing (2014)
|2001-Ongoing (2014)
|-
|-
|4 Institutional support
|4 Institutional support
|4.1 Lack of law enforcement
|4.1 Lack of law enforcement
|UWA 2001, UWA 2014, Basiibye personal obs. 2025
|[[#R00314|UWA 2001]], [[#R00315|UWA 2014]], Basiibye S. pers. comm. 2025
|2001-Ongoing (2025)
|2001-Ongoing (2025)
|}
|}
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|2 Resources and capacity
|2 Resources and capacity
|2.1 Sufficient staff
|2.1 Sufficient staff
|UWA 2014
|[[#R00315|UWA 2014]]
|2001-Ongoing (2025)
|2001-Ongoing (2025)
|-
|-
|2 Resources and capacity
|2 Resources and capacity
|2.3 Continuous/long-term funding
|2.3 Continuous/long-term funding
|BINP 2025, Bitariho et al.2022, UWA 2014, UWA 2001
|[[#R00298|BINP 2025]], [[#R00297|Bitariho et al.2022]], [[#R00315|UWA 2014]], [[#R00314|UWA 2001]]
|2001-Ongoing (2025)
|2001-Ongoing (2025)
|-
|-
|2 Resources and capacity
|2 Resources and capacity
|2.5 Sufficient capacity/expertise to advise, design, or implement actions
|2.5 Sufficient capacity/expertise to advise, design, or implement actions
|BINP 2025, IIED 2016, UWA 2014, UWA 2001
|[[#R00298|BINP 2025]], [[#R00305|IIED 2016]], [[#R00315|UWA 2014]], [[#R00314|UWA 2001]]
|2001-Ongoing (2025)
|2001-Ongoing (2025)
|-
|-
|2 Resources and capacity
|2 Resources and capacity
|2.6 External partnerships that add expertise or resources
|2.6 External partnerships that add expertise or resources
|BINP 2025, IIED 2016, UWA 2014
|[[#R00298|BINP 2025]], [[#R00305|IIED 2016]], [[#R00315|UWA 2014]]
|1994-Ongoing (2025)
|1994-Ongoing (2025)
|-
|-
|3 Engaged community
|3 Engaged community
|3.1 Strong local environmental knowledge
|3.1 Strong local environmental knowledge
|Ssebaggala 2025, UWA 2014
|[[#R00312|Ssebaggala 2025]], [[#R00315|UWA 2014]]
|2001-Ongoing (2025)
|2001-Ongoing (2025)
|-
|-
|3 Engaged community
|3 Engaged community
|3.6 Local community engagement and support
|3.6 Local community engagement and support
|Ssebaggala 2025, Bitariho et al. 2022, UWA 2014
|[[#R00312|Ssebaggala 2025]], [[#R00297|Bitariho et al. 2022]], [[#R00315|UWA 2014]]
|2001-Ongoing (2025)
|2001-Ongoing (2025)
|-
|-
|4 Institutional support
|4 Institutional support
|4.1 Effective legislation and law enforcement
|4.1 Effective legislation and law enforcement
|BINP 2025, UWA 2014, UWA 2001
|[[#R00298|BINP 2025]], [[#R00315|UWA 2014]], [[#R00314|UWA 2001]]
|2001-Ongoing (2025)
|2001-Ongoing (2025)
|}
|}
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|Diverse diets for both species
|Diverse diets for both species
|1997-2000
|1997-2000
|Stanford & Nkurunung 2003
|[[#R00313|Stanford & Nkurunung 2003]]
|Yes for Gorillas
|Yes for Gorillas
|Gorilla beringei beringei & Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii
|Gorilla beringei beringei & Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii
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|Widespread among groups
|Widespread among groups
|2004.0
|2004.0
|Ganas et al. 2004
|[[#R00301|Ganas et al. 2004]]
|Habituated
|Habituated
|Gorilla beringei beringei
|Gorilla beringei beringei
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|Rare but confirmed
|Rare but confirmed
|
|
|Stanford & Nkurunung 2003
|[[#R00313|Stanford & Nkurunung 2003]]
|Not habituated
|Not habituated
|Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii
|Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii
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|Widespread across 5 groups
|Widespread across 5 groups
|2005–2023
|2005–2023
|Richardson et al. 2025
|[[#R00309|Richardson et al. 2025]]
|Yes
|Yes
|Gorilla beringei beringei
|Gorilla beringei beringei
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|~6 gestures/hour across 4 groups
|~6 gestures/hour across 4 groups
|2019–2022
|2019–2022
|Grund et al. 2025
|[[#R00302|Grund et al. 2025]]
|Yes
|Yes
|Gorilla beringei beringei
|Gorilla beringei beringei
Line 492: Line 492:
|Frequent in multiple groups
|Frequent in multiple groups
|2019–2024
|2019–2024
|Robbins et al. 2025
|[[#R00310|Robbins et al. 2025]]
|Yes
|Yes
|Gorilla beringei beringei
|Gorilla beringei beringei
Line 502: Line 502:
= Exposure to climate change impacts =
= Exposure to climate change impacts =


As part of a study on the exposure of African great ape sites to climate change impacts, Kiribou et al. subm. extracted climate data and data on projected extreme climate impact events for the site. Climatological characteristics were derived from observation-based climate data provided by the Inter-Sectoral Impact Model Intercomparison Project (ISIMIP, www.isimip.org). Parameters were calculated as the average across each 30-year period. For 1981-2010, the EWEMBI dataset from ISIMIP2a was used. For the two future periods (2021-2050 and 2071-2099) ISIMIP2b climate data based on four CMIP5 global climate models were used. For future projections, two Representative Concentration Pathways (RCP) were used. RCP 2.6 is a scenario with strong mitigation measures in which global temperatures would likely rise below 2C. RCP 6.0 is a scenario with medium emissions in which global temperatures would likely rise up to 3C by 2100. For the number of days with heavy precipitation events, the 98th percentile of all precipitation days (>1mm/d) was calculated for the 1979-2013 reference period as a threshold for a heavy precipitation event. Then, for each year, the number of days above that threshold was derived. The figures on temperature and precipitation anomaly show the deviation from the mean temperature and mean precipitation for the 1979-2013 reference period.
As part of a study on the exposure of African great ape sites to climate change impacts, [[#R02167|Kiribou et al. (2024)]] extracted climate data and data on projected extreme climate impact events for the site. Climatological characteristics were derived from observation-based climate data provided by the Inter-Sectoral Impact Model Intercomparison Project (ISIMIP, www.isimip.org). Parameters were calculated as the average across each 30-year period. For 1981-2010, the EWEMBI dataset from ISIMIP2a was used. For the two future periods (2021-2050 and 2071-2099) ISIMIP2b climate data based on four CMIP5 global climate models were used. For future projections, two Representative Concentration Pathways (RCP) were used. RCP 2.6 is a scenario with strong mitigation measures in which global temperatures would likely rise below 2C. RCP 6.0 is a scenario with medium emissions in which global temperatures would likely rise up to 3C by 2100. For the number of days with heavy precipitation events, the 98th percentile of all precipitation days (>1mm/d) was calculated for the 1979-2013 reference period as a threshold for a heavy precipitation event. Then, for each year, the number of days above that threshold was derived. The figures on temperature and precipitation anomaly show the deviation from the mean temperature and mean precipitation for the 1979-2013 reference period.


The estimated exposure to future extreme climate impact events (crop failure, drought, river flood, wildfire, tropical cyclone, and heatwave) is based on a published dataset by Lange et al. 2020 derived from ISIMIP2b data. The same global climate models and RCPs as described above were used. Within each 30-year period, the number of years with an extreme event and the average proportion of the site affected were calculated (see Kiribou et al. subm. for details).
The estimated exposure to future extreme climate impact events (crop failure, drought, river flood, wildfire, tropical cyclone, and heatwave) is based on a published dataset by Lange et al. 2020 derived from ISIMIP2b data. The same global climate models and RCPs as described above were used. Within each 30-year period, the number of years with an extreme event and the average proportion of the site affected were calculated ([[#R02167|Kiribou et al. 2024]]).


'''Table 8. Estimated past and projected climatological characteristics in Bwindi Impenetrable National Park'''
'''Table 8. Estimated past and projected climatological characteristics in Bwindi Impenetrable National Park'''
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= References =
= References =


Ampumuza, C., & Driessen, C. (2020). Gorilla habituation and the role of animal agency in conservation and tourism development at Bwindi, South Western Uganda. Environment and Planning E: Nature and Space, 4(4), 1601–1621. <br>
<span id="R00296"></span>Ampumuza, C., & Driessen, C. (2020). Gorilla habituation and the role of animal agency in conservation and tourism development at Bwindi, South Western Uganda. ''Environment and Planning E: Nature and Space'', 4(4), 1601-1621. [https://doi.org/10.1177/2514848620966502 doi:10.1177/2514848620966502]
BirdLife International. (2020). Important Bird Areas factsheet: Bwindi Impenetrable National Park. http://www.birdlife.org <br>
 
Bitariho, R., Akampurira, E., & Mugerwa, B. (2022). Long‐term funding of community projects has contributed to mitigation of illegal activities within a premier African protected area, Bwindi Impenetrable National Park, Uganda. Conservation Science and Practice, 4(9), e12761. <br>
<span id="R00297"></span>Bitariho, R., Akampurira, E., & Mugerwa, B. (2022). Long‐term funding of community projects has contributed to mitigation of illegal activities within a premier African protected area, Bwindi impenetrable National Park, Uganda. ''Conservation Science and Practice'', 4(9). [https://doi.org/10.1111/csp2.12761 doi:10.1111/csp2.12761]
Bwindi Impenetrable National Park (BINP). (2025). Gorilla levy funds. https://www.bwindiimpenetrablenationalpark.com/conservation/gorilla-levy/ <br>
 
Bwindi Uganda Gorilla Trekking. (2025, June 18). Community-based conservation initiatives around Bwindi Forest. https://www.bwindiugandagorillatrekking.com/community-based-conservation-around-bwindi/ <br>
<span id="R00298"></span>Bwindi Impenetrable National Park. (2025). Gorilla levy funds. https://www.bwindiimpenetrablenationalpark.com/conservation/gorilla-levy/
Castro Mayo, A., Flores-Fernandez, V., Twinamatsiko, M., & Parra, C. (2025). Compensation and power in human–wildlife conflicts in Bwindi National Park. SSRN. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4769632 <br>
 
Ganas, J., Robbins, M. M., Nkurunungi, J. B., Kaplin, B. A., & McNeilage, A. (2004). Dietary variability of mountain gorillas in Bwindi Impenetrable National Park, Uganda. International Journal of Primatology, 25(5), 1043–1072. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:IJOP.0000043351.20129.44 <br>
<span id="R00299"></span>Bwindi Uganda Gorilla Trekking. (2025, June 18). Community-based conservation initiatives around Bwindi Forest. https://www.bwindiugandagorillatrekking.com/community-based-conservation-around-bwindi/
Grund, C., Robbins, M. M., & Hobaiter, C. (2025). The gestural repertoire of Bwindi mountain gorillas (Gorilla beringei beringei): Gesture form and frequency of use. Animal Cognition, 28(1), 1–22. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10071-025-01977-8 <br>
 
Hickey, J. R., Basabose, A., Gilardi, K. V., Greer, D., Nampindo, S., Robbins, M. M., & Stoinski, T. S. (2018). Gorilla beringei ssp. beringei. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2018: e.T39999A17989719. https://doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2018-2.RLTS.T39999A17989719.en <br>
<span id="R00300"></span>Castro Mayo, A., Flores-Fernandez, V., Twinamatsiko, M., & Parra, C. (2025). Compensation and Power in Human-Wildlife Conflicts in Bwindi National Park. SSRN. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4769632. [https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.5397858 doi:10.2139/ssrn.5397858]
International Gorilla Conservation Programme (IGCP). (2022, July 5). Reformed poachers plant four kilometers of Mauritius thorny hedge in Bwindi Impenetrable National Park. https://igcp.org/updates/reformed-poachers-plant-four-kilometers-of-mauritius-thorny-hedge-in-bwindi-impenetrable-national-park/ <br>
 
International Institute for Environment and Development (IIED). (2016). Uganda: Conserving Bwindi Impenetrable National Park and reducing local poverty. https://www.iied.org/uganda-conserving-bwindi-impenetrable-national-park-reducing-local-poverty <br>
<span id="R00301"></span>Ganas, J., Robbins, M. M., Nkurunungi, J. B., Kaplin, B. A., & McNeilage, A. (2004). Dietary Variability of Mountain Gorillas in Bwindi Impenetrable National Park, Uganda. ''International Journal of Primatology'', 25(5), 1043-1072. [https://doi.org/10.1023/b:ijop.0000043351.20129.44 doi:10.1023/b:ijop.0000043351.20129.44]
Kasangaki, A., Babaasa, D., Bitariho, R., & Mugiri, G. (2001). A survey of burnt areas in Bwindi Impenetrable and Mgahinga Gorilla National Parks, SW Uganda: The fires of 2000 [Unpublished report]. <br>
 
McNeilage, A., Plumptre, A. J., Brock-Doyle, A., & Vedder, A. (2001). Bwindi Impenetrable National Park, Uganda: Gorilla census 1997. Oryx, 35(1), 39–47. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-3008.2001.00154.x <br>
<span id="R00302"></span>Grund, C., Robbins, M. M., & Hobaiter, C. (2025). The gestural repertoire of Bwindi mountain gorillas (Gorilla beringei beringei): gesture form and frequency of use. ''Animal Cognition'', 28(1), 1-22. [https://doi.org/10.1007/s10071-025-01977-8 doi:10.1007/s10071-025-01977-8]
McNeilage, A., Robbins, M. M., Gray, M., Olupot, W., Babaasa, D., Bitariho, R., Kasangaki, A., Rainer, H., Asuma, S., Mugiri, G., & Baker, J. (2006). Census of the mountain gorilla Gorilla beringei beringei population in Bwindi Impenetrable National Park, Uganda. Oryx, 40(4), 419–427. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0030605306001311 <br>
 
Richardson, J. L., McFarlin, S. C., & Robbins, M. M. (2025). Biological, social and ecological correlates of social play in immature Bwindi mountain gorillas (Gorilla beringei beringei). Animal Behaviour, 224, Article 123190. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anbehav.2025.123190 <br>
<span id="R00303"></span>Hickey, J. R., Basabose, A., Gilardi, K. V., Greer, D., Nampindo, S., Robbins, M. M., & Stoinski, T. S. (2018). Gorilla beringei ssp. beringei: Hickey, J.R., Basabose, A., Gilardi, K.V., Greer, D., Nampindo, S., Robbins, M.M. & Stoinski, T.S: The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2018: e.T39999A17989719. [https://doi.org/10.2305/iucn.uk.2018-2.rlts.t39999a17989719.en doi:10.2305/iucn.uk.2018-2.rlts.t39999a17989719.en]
Robbins, M. M., Grund, M., Hobaiter, C., et al. (2025). Gorillas are arboreal apes. Current Biology. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2025.05.090 <br>
 
Roy, J., Vigilant, L., Gray, M., Wright, E., Kato, R., Kabano, P., Basabose, A., Tibenda, E., Kühl, H. S., & Robbins, M. M. (2014). Challenges in the use of genetic mark–recapture to estimate the population size of Bwindi mountain gorillas (Gorilla beringei beringei). Biological Conservation, 180, 249–261. <br>
<span id="R00304"></span>International Gorilla Conservation Programme. (2022, July 5). Reformed poachers plant four kilometers of Mauritius thorny hedge in Bwindi Impenetrable National Park. https://igcp.org/updates/reformed-poachers-plant-four-kilometers-of-mauritius-thorny-hedge-in-bwindi-impenetrable-national-park/
Ssebaggala, J. (2025). Tourism, protected areas, and the well-being of local residents near Bwindi, Uganda. African Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 1(1), Article a3. https://doi.org/10.4102/ajst.v1i1.3 <br>
 
Stanford, C. B., & Nkurunungi, J. B. (2003). Behavioral ecology of sympatric chimpanzees and gorillas in Bwindi Impenetrable National Park, Uganda: Diet. International Journal of Primatology, 24(4), 901–918. <br>
<span id="R00305"></span>International Institute for Environment and Development. (2016). Uganda: Conserving Bwindi Impenetrable National Park and reducing local poverty. https://www.iied.org/uganda-conserving-bwindi-impenetrable-national-park-reducing-local-poverty
Uganda Wildlife Authority (UWA). (2001). Bwindi Impenetrable National Park: General management plan 2001–2011. Uganda Wildlife Authority. <br>
 
Uganda Wildlife Authority (UWA). (2014). Bwindi Impenetrable National Park: General management plan 2014–2024 (pp. 23–25). Uganda Wildlife Authority. <br>
<span id="R00306"></span>Kasangaki, A., Babaasa, D., Bitariho, R., & Mugiri, G. (2001). A survey of burnt areas in Bwindi Impenetrable and Mgahinga Gorilla National Parks, SW Uganda: The fires of 2000 [Unpublished report].
 
<span id="R00307"></span>McNeilage, A., Plumptre, A. J., Brock-Doyle, A., & Vedder, A. (2001). Bwindi Impenetrable National Park, Uganda: gorilla census 1997. ''Oryx'', 35(1), 39-47. [https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-3008.2001.00154.x doi:10.1046/j.1365-3008.2001.00154.x]
 
<span id="R00308"></span>McNeilage, A., Robbins, M. M., Gray, M., Olupot, W., Babaasa, D., Bitariho, R., …, & Baker, J. (2006). Census of the mountain gorilla Gorilla beringei beringei population in Bwindi Impenetrable National Park, Uganda. ''Oryx'', 40(4), 419-427. [https://doi.org/10.1017/s0030605306001311 doi:10.1017/s0030605306001311]
 
<span id="R00309"></span>Richardson, J. L., McFarlin, S. C., & Robbins, M. M. (2025). Biological, social and ecological correlates of social play in immature Bwindi mountain gorillas, Gorilla beringei beringei. ''Animal Behaviour'', 224, 123190. [https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anbehav.2025.123190 doi:10.1016/j.anbehav.2025.123190]
 
<span id="R00310"></span>Robbins, M. M., Drummond-Clarke, R. C., Robbins, A. M., Ostrofsky, K. R., & Kivell, T. L. (2025). Gorillas are arboreal apes. ''Current Biology'', 35(12), 2974-2979.e3. [https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2025.05.015 doi:10.1016/j.cub.2025.05.015]
 
<span id="R00311"></span>Roy, J., Vigilant, L., Gray, M., Wright, E., Kato, R., Kabano, P., …, & Robbins, M. M. (2014). Challenges in the use of genetic mark-recapture to estimate the population size of Bwindi mountain gorillas (Gorilla beringei beringei). ''Biological Conservation'', 180, 249-261. [https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2014.10.011 doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2014.10.011]
 
<span id="R00312"></span>Ssebaggala, J. (2025). Tourism, protected areas, and the well-being of local residents near Bwindi, Uganda. ''African Journal of Sustainable Tourism'', 1(1). [https://doi.org/10.4102/ajst.v1i1.3 doi:10.4102/ajst.v1i1.3]
 
<span id="R00313"></span>Stanford, C. B., & Nkurunungi, J. B. (2003). Behavioral Ecology of Sympatric Chimpanzees and Gorillas in Bwindi Impenetrable National Park, Uganda: Diet. ''International Journal of Primatology'', 24(4), 901-918. [https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1024689008159 doi:10.1023/a:1024689008159]
 
<span id="R00314"></span>Uganda Wildlife Authority. (2001). Bwindi Impenetrable National Park: General management plan 2001–2011. Uganda Wildlife Authority.
 
<span id="R00315"></span>Uganda Wildlife Authority. (2014). Bwindi Impenetrable National Park: General management plan 2014–2024 (pp. 23–25). Uganda Wildlife Authority.
 
<span id="R02167"></span>Kiribou, R., Tehoda, P., Chukwu, O., Bempah, G., Kühl, H. S., Ferreira, J., …, & Heinicke, S. (2024). Exposure of African ape sites to climate change impacts. ''PLOS Climate'', 3(2), e0000345. [https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pclm.0000345 doi:10.1371/journal.pclm.0000345]
 
<span id="R02020"></span>Gorilla Doctors. https://www.gorilladoctors.org/about-us/
 
<span id="R02021"></span>Bwindi Impenetrable National Park. https://www.bwindiimpenetrablenationalpark.com/gorilla-trekking/


<span id="R02022"></span>Gorilla Doctors. https://www.gorilladoctors.org/about-us/where-we-work/




Latest revision as of 17:52, 15 October 2026

East Africa > Uganda > Bwindi Impenetrable National Park

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Summary

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  • Eastern chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii) & mountain gorillas (Gorilla beringei beringei) are present in Bwindi Impenetrable National Park.
  • It has been estimated that 459 gorillas occur in the site; the chimpanzee population size is unknown.
  • The gorilla population trend is increasing.
  • The site has a total size of 331 km².
  • Key threats to great apes are linked to high human presence, which poses some risk of disturbance and disease transmission.
  • Conservation activities have focused on ecotourism programs, awareness raising, education, and regularly monitoring the health of habituated gorillas.
  • The park is a UNESCO Natural World Heritage Site.
  • Mountain gorilla infant © Dirck Byler
  • Mountain gorilla © Dirck Byler
  • Mountain gorilla © Dirck Byler

Site characteristics

Bwindi Impenetrable National Park is located in southwestern Uganda, on the edge of the Albertine Rift Valley. The area is one of Uganda's oldest and most biologically diverse rainforests, which dates back over 25,000 years (Uganda Wildlife Authority). Encompassing a series of steep ridges and valleys, Bwindi is the source of five major rivers, which flow into Lake Edward. The park is famous for being home to almost half of the world's mountain gorilla population (Uganda Wildlife Authority). The site is a designated Important Bird Area, with 347 bird species documented in the forest, including 23 endemic species to the Albertine Rift (BirdLife International 2020). Bwindi was gazetted as a National Park in 1991 and declared a (UNESCO Natural World Heritage Site) in 1994.

Table 1. Basic site information for Bwindi Impenetrable National Park

Species Gorilla beringei beringei, Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii
Area 331 km²
Coordinates Lat: -1.017254 , Lon: 29.671192
Type of site Protected area (National Park)
Habitat types Subtropical/tropical montane forest, Subtropical/tropical moist lowland forest
Type of governance Governance by government

Types of sites Governance types Habitat types

Ape status

The park is home to one of the two subpopulations of mountain gorillas in the world, the Bwindi-Sarambwe subpopulation (Hickey et al. 2018). Increases in both the Virunga Massif and the Bwindi-Sarambwe subpopulations led to a change in the IUCN Red List classification from Critically Endangered to Endangered in 2018 (Hickey et al. 2018). In spite of this increase, the overall population size is still small.

Table 2. Ape population estimates reported for Bwindi Impenetrable National Park

Species Year Occurrence Encounter or vistation rate (nests/km; ind/day) Density estimate [ind./ km²] (95% CI) Abundance estimate (95% CI) Survey area Sampling method Analytical framework Source Comments A.P.E.S. database ID
Gorilla beringei beringei 2018 459.0 Bwindi-Sarambwe ecosystem Reconnaissance walk Hickey et al. 2018 Sweep method, with high density of reconnaissance trails covering the forest.
Gorilla beringei beringei 2011 400.0 Bwindi Impenetrable National Park Genetic (dung/hair) Roy et al. 2014
Gorilla beringei beringei 2002 320.0 Bwindi Impenetrable National Park Reconnaissance walk McNeilage et al. 2006 Sweep method, with high density of reconnaissance trails covering the forest. UGA0009
Gorilla beringei beringei 1997 292.0 Bwindi Impenetrable National Park Reconnaissance walk McNeilage et al. 2001 Sweep method, with high density of reconnaissance trails covering the forest. UGA0007

Sampling methods Analytical frameworks

Threats

Table 3. Threats to apes reported for Bwindi Impenetrable National Park

Category Specific threats Threat level Description Year of threat
1 Residential & commercial development 1.1 Residential areas Present (unknown severity) Human encroachment near park edges, with a lot of informal settlements (Basiibye, personal observation, 2025; McNeilage et al. 2006) 2006-Ongoing (2025)
11 Climate change & severe weather 11.1 Habitat shifting & alteration Present (unknown severity) Increased temperatures and modified rainfall patterns likely to cause changes in food availability and habitat quality (Hickey et al. 2018). Ongoing (2018)
5 Biological resource use 5.1 Hunting & collecting terrestrial animals Low (up to 30% of population affected) Signs of illegal hunting reported during a census (Bitariho et al. 2022). 1994-Ongoing (2022)
5 Biological resource use 5.1.2 Unintentional effects Present (unknown severity) Poaching as a non-target species, e.g., snares set up for other animals (Hickey et al. 2018). Great apes have sustained injuries after being caught in traps probably intended for other animals (Robbins pers. comm. 2025). Ongoing (2025)
5 Biological resource use 5.1.5 Persecution/human wildlife conflict Present (unknown severity) Bwindi gorillas appear to crop-raid because of the availability of palatable foods at the edge of the park, not due to a lack of dietary items in the park (Hickey et al. 2018). Ongoing (2018)
5 Biological resource use 5.2 Gathering terrestrial plants Present (unknown severity) Wild honey and wild yam collection (Bitariho et al. 2022). 1994-Ongoing (2022)
5 Biological resource use 5.3 Logging & wood harvesting Present (unknown severity) Collection of firewood and tree cuttings (Bitariho et al. 2022). 1994-Ongoing (2022)
6 Human intrusions & disturbance 6.3 Other human disturbances Present (unknown severity) Human presence due to tourism, conservation and scientific work, camps for security forces, etc., all of which pose some risk of disturbance and disease transmission (Hickey et al. 2018). Ongoing (2018)
7 Natural system modifications 7.1 Fire & fire suppression Present (unknown severity) 2.64 km² burnt (≈0.8% of park area) in 1999 and 0.2 km² burnt (≈0.05%) in 2000 (Kasangaki et al. 2001). Most fires are human induced, started by illegal honey collectors and some fires spread from community agricultural fields(UWA 2014, Kasangaki et al. 2001). 1990-Ongoing (2014)
7 Natural system modifications 7.3 Other ecosystem modifications Low (up to 30% of population affected) A 2002 survey revealed gorillas avoided disturbed areas with high human activity; this reflected habitat fragmentation and altered habitat quality and movement patterns (McNeilage et al. 2006). However, more gorillas are continuously using disturbed and human impacted areas but threat of fragmentation and alteration of habitat quality persists (Basiibye, personal observation, 2025). 2002-Ongoing (2025)
8 Invasive & other problematic species, genes & diseases 8.4 Pathogens High (more than 70% of population affected) Vulnerability to human pathogens, and outbreaks of respiratory virus diseases and gastrointestinal parasite infections (Hickey et al. 2018). Ongoing (2018)
8 Invasive & other problematic species, genes & diseases 8.4 Pathogens Present (unknown severity) A potential risk of disease transmission between humans and great apes is reported, details are unknown (Robbins pers. comm. 2025). Ongoing (2025)

Threats

Conservation activities

The site is managed by the Uganda Wildlife Authority. The management of the site has developed ecotourism programs that support the livelihoods of local communities (UNESCO). Nine groups have been habituated for tourism; the first one was the Mubare gorilla group, since 1993. Conservation Through Public Health work on reducing human-gorilla conflicts in and around the park, and avoiding the transmission of diseases.

Table 4. Conservation activities reported for Bwindi Impenetrable National Park

Category Specific activity Description Implementing organization(s) Year of activity
1 Development impact mitigation 1.5 Install mechanical barriers or use natural hedges to deter apes Construct and maintain barriers to control problem animals (UWA 2014). Intended to reduce crop raiding and human–wildlife conflict, by gorillas. Physical barriers such as Mauritius thorn hedges, trenching, and tea planting have been used in several community zones, especially around Nkuringo and Buhoma, to deter gorilla movement (IGCP 2022). HuGo (Human–Gorilla Conflict Resolution) squads under Uganda Wildlife Authority, International Gorilla Conservation Programme (IGCP) 2000-Ongoing (2022)
2 Counter-wildlife crime 2.14 Employ hunters in the conservation sector to reduce their impact 50 reformed poachers from the Nteko and Kakoka communities planted four kilometers of Mauritius thorny hedge along the park boundary, to deter problem animal and reduced human wildlife conflict but most importantly involving ex-poachers in conservation and supporting livelihood. The participants earned a daily wage of about $42 (IGCP 2022). Community members, including former poachers, are trained to safely guide gorillas back into the forest when they stray into villages, many employed as porters and guides (Basiibye, personal observation, 2025; Bwindi Uganda Gorilla Trekking 2025). HuGo (Human–Gorilla Conflict Resolution) squads under Uganda Wildlife Authority, International Gorilla Conservation Programme (IGCP) 2000-Ongoing (2025)
3 Species health 3.10 Treat sick/injured apes Gorilla Doctors is an international veterinary and conservation NGO that provides health monitoring and veterinary care to endangered mountain gorillas. A veterinary program began in 1994. Gorilla Doctors 1994-Ongoing (2025)
3 Species health 3.11 Implement continuous health monitoring/permanent vet on site Gorilla Doctors is an international veterinary and conservation NGO that provides health monitoring and veterinary care to endangered mountain gorillas. A veterinary program began in 1994. Gorilla Doctors 1994-Ongoing (2025)
3 Species health 3.2 Keep safety distance to habituated apes Bwindi Impenetrable National Park Uganda Wildlife Authority Ongoing (2025)
3 Species health 3.3 Limit time that researchers/tourists are allowed to spend with habituated apes Bwindi Impenetrable National Park Uganda Wildlife Authority Ongoing (2025)
4 Education & awareness 4.1 Educate local communities about apes and sustainable use Activities aimed at teaching local communities about the great apes were documented, along with efforts to provide general education and life skills (Robbins pers. comm. 2025). Uganda Wildlife Authority Ongoing (2025)
4 Education & awareness 4.2 Involve local community in ape research and conservation management Local community members are involved in conservation programs, with the majority of staff recruited from surrounding communities (Robbins pers. comm. 2025). Uganda Wildlife Authority Ongoing (2025)
5 Protection & restoration 5.1 Create buffer zones around protected ape habitat Acquire land to act as a buffer area around the necks (UWA 2014), in order to reduce human–gorilla conflict in narrow boundary zones (UWA 2014; suggested in the management plan, no recent report mentions its implementation).Private people (such as owners of tourists lodges) buy land near park and pay people to move away (Basiibye, personal observation 2025). Uganda Wildlife Authority (UWA), International Gorilla Conservation Programme (IGCP), Private individuals 1991-Ongoing (2025)
5 Protection & restoration 5.2 Legally protect ape habitat The site was declared a National Park in 1991. Uganda Wildlife Authority 1991-Ongoing (2026)
5 Protection & restoration 5.5 Demarcate and enforce boundaries of protected areas Negotiate and sign boundary management agreements with communities, plant new, appropriate and live markers along the boundary (direct physical demarcation) (UWA, 2014). No recent evidence for implementation (Basiibye, personal observation 2025). Uganda Wildlife Authority, Institute of Tropical Forest Conservation (ITFC) Ongoing (2014)
6 Species management 6.1 Habituate primates to human presence to reduce stress from tourists/researchers Ampumuza & Driessen 2020. 1991-Ongoing (2025)
6 Species management 6.2 Guard habituated ape groups to ensure their safety/well-being The (Gorilla Doctors) who work at Bwindi Impenetrable National Park regularly monitor the health of habituated gorillas. Uganda Wildlife Authority, Gorilla Doctors Ongoing (2025)
7 Economic & other incentives 7.1 Provide monetary benefits to local communities for sustainably managing their forest and its wildlife (e.g., REDD, alternative income, employment) Local people are hired to work in conservation management and initiatives (Bitariho et al. 2022, Robbins pers. comm. 2025). Uganda Wildlife Authority 1994-Ongoing (2025)
7 Economic & other incentives 7.2 Provide non-monetary benefits to local communities for sustainably managing their forest and its wildlife (e.g., better education, infrastructure development) Community members receive basic education and essential life skills training (Bitariho et al. 2022, Robbins pers. comm. 2025). Water and sanitation and household income-generating projects have been the most funded activities (Bitariho et al. 2022). Uganda Wildlife Authority 1994-Ongoing (2025)
8 Permanent presence 8.2 Run tourist projects and ensure permanent human presence at site Bwindi Impenetrable National Park Uganda Wildlife Authority 1993-Ongoing (2025)

Conservation activities

Challenges

Table 5. Challenges reported for Bwindi Impenetrable National Park

Challenges Specific challenges Source Year(s)
2 Resources and capacity 2.1 Lack of capacity/training UWA 2001, UWA 2014, Basiibye S. pers. comm. 2025 2001-Ongoing (2025)
2 Resources and capacity 2.2 Lack of staff UWA 2001, UWA 2014 2001-Ongoing (2014)
2 Resources and capacity 2.3 General lack of funding UWA 2001, UWA 2014 2001-Ongoing (2014)
2 Resources and capacity 2.5 Lack of equipment/transportation UWA 2001, UWA 2014, Basiibye S. pers. comm. 2025 2001-Ongoing (2025)
3 Engaged community 3.1 General lack of community engagement or support UWA 2001, UWA 2014 2001-Ongoing (2014)
4 Institutional support 4.1 Lack of law enforcement UWA 2001, UWA 2014, Basiibye S. pers. comm. 2025 2001-Ongoing (2025)

Challenges

Enablers

Table 6. Enablers reported for Bwindi Impenetrable National Park

Enablers Specific enablers Source Year(s)
2 Resources and capacity 2.1 Sufficient staff UWA 2014 2001-Ongoing (2025)
2 Resources and capacity 2.3 Continuous/long-term funding BINP 2025, Bitariho et al.2022, UWA 2014, UWA 2001 2001-Ongoing (2025)
2 Resources and capacity 2.5 Sufficient capacity/expertise to advise, design, or implement actions BINP 2025, IIED 2016, UWA 2014, UWA 2001 2001-Ongoing (2025)
2 Resources and capacity 2.6 External partnerships that add expertise or resources BINP 2025, IIED 2016, UWA 2014 1994-Ongoing (2025)
3 Engaged community 3.1 Strong local environmental knowledge Ssebaggala 2025, UWA 2014 2001-Ongoing (2025)
3 Engaged community 3.6 Local community engagement and support Ssebaggala 2025, Bitariho et al. 2022, UWA 2014 2001-Ongoing (2025)
4 Institutional support 4.1 Effective legislation and law enforcement BINP 2025, UWA 2014, UWA 2001 2001-Ongoing (2025)

Enablers

Research activities

Counting elusive animals: Comparing field and genetic census of the entire mountain gorilla population of Bwindi Impenetrable National Park, Uganda

Dietary Variability of Mountain Gorillas in Bwindi Impenetrable National Park, Uganda

Population dynamics of the Bwindi mountain gorillas

Behavioral Ecology of Sympatric Chimpanzees and Gorillas in Bwindi Impenetrable National Park, Uganda: Diet

Sleeping tree choice by Bwindi chimpanzees


Documented behaviours

Table 7. Behaviours documented for Bwindi Impenetrable National Park

Category Behavior Observation type Prevalence Observation dates Source Habituation Species Comment
Diet Seasonal dietary overlap and divergence between chimpanzees and gorillas Direct observation, fecal analysis Diverse diets for both species 1997-2000 Stanford & Nkurunung 2003 Yes for Gorillas Gorilla beringei beringei & Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii Both species consume similar fruits during peak seasons; gorillas rely more on fibrous fallback foods during lean periods
Foraging Seasonal dietary shifts in fruit and foliage consumption Direct observation, fecal analysis Widespread among groups 2004.0 Ganas et al. 2004 Habituated Gorilla beringei beringei Gorillas adjust diet based on seasonal availability of fruits and herbs
Tool use Use of modified stick tools to extract honey from stingless and stinging bees Direct observation Rare but confirmed Stanford & Nkurunung 2003 Not habituated Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii Chimpanzees selected and modified tools based on bee species and hive type
Social play Variation in social play among immature gorillas linked to sex, age, fruit intake, and peer availability Focal sampling (6,000+ hrs), longitudinal data Widespread across 5 groups 2005–2023 Richardson et al. 2025 Yes Gorilla beringei beringei Males played more than females; play increased with fruit availability and number of peers; reflects motor and social development under energetic constraints
Communication Use of 63 distinct gesture actions across 10 behavioral contexts Video coding (ELAN), focal observation ~6 gestures/hour across 4 groups 2019–2022 Grund et al. 2025 Yes Gorilla beringei beringei First systematic description of mountain gorilla gestural repertoire; includes species-specific forms and 126 morph variants
Locomotion Arboreal climbing and nesting by adult gorillas Direct observation, GPS tracking Frequent in multiple groups 2019–2024 Robbins et al. 2025 Yes Gorilla beringei beringei Bwindi gorillas spent ~21% of time in trees; silverbacks reached heights of 20–40m, challenging assumptions of terrestriality

Behaviours

Exposure to climate change impacts

As part of a study on the exposure of African great ape sites to climate change impacts, Kiribou et al. (2024) extracted climate data and data on projected extreme climate impact events for the site. Climatological characteristics were derived from observation-based climate data provided by the Inter-Sectoral Impact Model Intercomparison Project (ISIMIP, www.isimip.org). Parameters were calculated as the average across each 30-year period. For 1981-2010, the EWEMBI dataset from ISIMIP2a was used. For the two future periods (2021-2050 and 2071-2099) ISIMIP2b climate data based on four CMIP5 global climate models were used. For future projections, two Representative Concentration Pathways (RCP) were used. RCP 2.6 is a scenario with strong mitigation measures in which global temperatures would likely rise below 2C. RCP 6.0 is a scenario with medium emissions in which global temperatures would likely rise up to 3C by 2100. For the number of days with heavy precipitation events, the 98th percentile of all precipitation days (>1mm/d) was calculated for the 1979-2013 reference period as a threshold for a heavy precipitation event. Then, for each year, the number of days above that threshold was derived. The figures on temperature and precipitation anomaly show the deviation from the mean temperature and mean precipitation for the 1979-2013 reference period.

The estimated exposure to future extreme climate impact events (crop failure, drought, river flood, wildfire, tropical cyclone, and heatwave) is based on a published dataset by Lange et al. 2020 derived from ISIMIP2b data. The same global climate models and RCPs as described above were used. Within each 30-year period, the number of years with an extreme event and the average proportion of the site affected were calculated (Kiribou et al. 2024).

Table 8. Estimated past and projected climatological characteristics in Bwindi Impenetrable National Park

Value 1981-2010 2021-2050, RCP 2.6 2021-2050, RCP 6.0 2071-2099, RCP 2.6 2071-2099, RCP 6.0
Mean temperature [C] 16.6 17.8 17.5 17.9 19.1
Annual precipitation [mm] 1272 1288 1422 1293 1411
Max no. consecutive dry days (per year) 19.4 28.4 28.9 31.6 25.8
No. days with heavy precipitation (per year) 5.6 6.9 8.1 7.5 9.5


Table 9. Projected exposure of apes to extreme climate impact events in Bwindi Impenetrable National Park

Type No. of years with event (2021-2050, RCP 2.6) % of site exposed (2021-2050, RCP 2.6) No. of years with event (2021-2050, RCP 6.0) % of site exposed (2021-2050, RCP 6.0) No. of years with event (2070-2099, RCP 2.6) % of site exposed (2070-2099, RCP 2.6) No. of years with event (2070-2099, RCP 6.0) % of site exposed (2070-2099, RCP 6.0)
Crop failure 5 0.28 4 0.72 5.5 0.38 6 0.18
Drought 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Heatwave 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
River flood 1 1.98 3 2.77 1.5 1.74 3.5 2.88
Tropical cyclone 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Wildfire 30 1.11 30 0.88 29 1.13 29 0.75


  • Precipitation anomaly in Bwindi Impenetrable National Park
  • Temperature anomaly in Bwindi Impenetrable National Park

External links

UNESCO Bwindi Impenetrable National Park

Uganda Wildlife Authority

Bwindi Forest National Park in Uganda

References

Ampumuza, C., & Driessen, C. (2020). Gorilla habituation and the role of animal agency in conservation and tourism development at Bwindi, South Western Uganda. Environment and Planning E: Nature and Space, 4(4), 1601-1621. doi:10.1177/2514848620966502

Bitariho, R., Akampurira, E., & Mugerwa, B. (2022). Long‐term funding of community projects has contributed to mitigation of illegal activities within a premier African protected area, Bwindi impenetrable National Park, Uganda. Conservation Science and Practice, 4(9). doi:10.1111/csp2.12761

Bwindi Impenetrable National Park. (2025). Gorilla levy funds. https://www.bwindiimpenetrablenationalpark.com/conservation/gorilla-levy/

Bwindi Uganda Gorilla Trekking. (2025, June 18). Community-based conservation initiatives around Bwindi Forest. https://www.bwindiugandagorillatrekking.com/community-based-conservation-around-bwindi/

Castro Mayo, A., Flores-Fernandez, V., Twinamatsiko, M., & Parra, C. (2025). Compensation and Power in Human-Wildlife Conflicts in Bwindi National Park. SSRN. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4769632. doi:10.2139/ssrn.5397858

Ganas, J., Robbins, M. M., Nkurunungi, J. B., Kaplin, B. A., & McNeilage, A. (2004). Dietary Variability of Mountain Gorillas in Bwindi Impenetrable National Park, Uganda. International Journal of Primatology, 25(5), 1043-1072. doi:10.1023/b:ijop.0000043351.20129.44

Grund, C., Robbins, M. M., & Hobaiter, C. (2025). The gestural repertoire of Bwindi mountain gorillas (Gorilla beringei beringei): gesture form and frequency of use. Animal Cognition, 28(1), 1-22. doi:10.1007/s10071-025-01977-8

Hickey, J. R., Basabose, A., Gilardi, K. V., Greer, D., Nampindo, S., Robbins, M. M., & Stoinski, T. S. (2018). Gorilla beringei ssp. beringei: Hickey, J.R., Basabose, A., Gilardi, K.V., Greer, D., Nampindo, S., Robbins, M.M. & Stoinski, T.S: The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2018: e.T39999A17989719. doi:10.2305/iucn.uk.2018-2.rlts.t39999a17989719.en

International Gorilla Conservation Programme. (2022, July 5). Reformed poachers plant four kilometers of Mauritius thorny hedge in Bwindi Impenetrable National Park. https://igcp.org/updates/reformed-poachers-plant-four-kilometers-of-mauritius-thorny-hedge-in-bwindi-impenetrable-national-park/

International Institute for Environment and Development. (2016). Uganda: Conserving Bwindi Impenetrable National Park and reducing local poverty. https://www.iied.org/uganda-conserving-bwindi-impenetrable-national-park-reducing-local-poverty

Kasangaki, A., Babaasa, D., Bitariho, R., & Mugiri, G. (2001). A survey of burnt areas in Bwindi Impenetrable and Mgahinga Gorilla National Parks, SW Uganda: The fires of 2000 [Unpublished report].

McNeilage, A., Plumptre, A. J., Brock-Doyle, A., & Vedder, A. (2001). Bwindi Impenetrable National Park, Uganda: gorilla census 1997. Oryx, 35(1), 39-47. doi:10.1046/j.1365-3008.2001.00154.x

McNeilage, A., Robbins, M. M., Gray, M., Olupot, W., Babaasa, D., Bitariho, R., …, & Baker, J. (2006). Census of the mountain gorilla Gorilla beringei beringei population in Bwindi Impenetrable National Park, Uganda. Oryx, 40(4), 419-427. doi:10.1017/s0030605306001311

Richardson, J. L., McFarlin, S. C., & Robbins, M. M. (2025). Biological, social and ecological correlates of social play in immature Bwindi mountain gorillas, Gorilla beringei beringei. Animal Behaviour, 224, 123190. doi:10.1016/j.anbehav.2025.123190

Robbins, M. M., Drummond-Clarke, R. C., Robbins, A. M., Ostrofsky, K. R., & Kivell, T. L. (2025). Gorillas are arboreal apes. Current Biology, 35(12), 2974-2979.e3. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2025.05.015

Roy, J., Vigilant, L., Gray, M., Wright, E., Kato, R., Kabano, P., …, & Robbins, M. M. (2014). Challenges in the use of genetic mark-recapture to estimate the population size of Bwindi mountain gorillas (Gorilla beringei beringei). Biological Conservation, 180, 249-261. doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2014.10.011

Ssebaggala, J. (2025). Tourism, protected areas, and the well-being of local residents near Bwindi, Uganda. African Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 1(1). doi:10.4102/ajst.v1i1.3

Stanford, C. B., & Nkurunungi, J. B. (2003). Behavioral Ecology of Sympatric Chimpanzees and Gorillas in Bwindi Impenetrable National Park, Uganda: Diet. International Journal of Primatology, 24(4), 901-918. doi:10.1023/a:1024689008159

Uganda Wildlife Authority. (2001). Bwindi Impenetrable National Park: General management plan 2001–2011. Uganda Wildlife Authority.

Uganda Wildlife Authority. (2014). Bwindi Impenetrable National Park: General management plan 2014–2024 (pp. 23–25). Uganda Wildlife Authority.

Kiribou, R., Tehoda, P., Chukwu, O., Bempah, G., Kühl, H. S., Ferreira, J., …, & Heinicke, S. (2024). Exposure of African ape sites to climate change impacts. PLOS Climate, 3(2), e0000345. doi:10.1371/journal.pclm.0000345

Gorilla Doctors. https://www.gorilladoctors.org/about-us/

Bwindi Impenetrable National Park. https://www.bwindiimpenetrablenationalpark.com/gorilla-trekking/

Gorilla Doctors. https://www.gorilladoctors.org/about-us/where-we-work/


Page created by: APES Atlas Team Date: 2021-01-14

Page updated by: I. Ordaz-Nemeth, Steven Joel Basiibye Date: 2025-10-10

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