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Summary

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Rwanda is home to two species of great apes: the mountain gorilla (Gorilla beringei beringei) and the eastern chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii).
The estimated populations of great apes in Rwanda include 669 gorillas (CI: 623–759) in the Virunga Massif (Volcanoes National Park), 306 chimpanzees in Nyungwe National Park (as of 2009), and 28 individuals in Gishwati-Mukura National Park.
Gorilla population trend is increasing in Volcanoes National Park, chimpanzee trend numbers are increasing in Gishwati-Mukura National Park, whereas chimpanzee population trend is decreasing in Nyungwe National Park.
The combined area of Rwanda’s great ape protected sites comprises Volcanoes National Park (160 km²), Nyungwe National Park (1,019 km²), and Gishwati-Mukura National Park (35.58 km²).
The key threats remain habitat loss, poaching, logging, and mining.
The conservation activities have mainly focused on ecotourism and research activities.
Rwanda’s integrated conservation and tourism model has made it a leader in ape conservation in Africa.

Site characteristics

Rwanda’s conservation landscape includes three major protected areas relevant to great apes:

• Volcanoes National Park (160 km²): Situated in the Virunga massif, it is globally renowned for its mountain gorilla population. The park is also home to golden monkeys and diverse montane ecosystems.

• Nyungwe National Park (1,019 km²): One of Africa’s largest montane rainforests, home to about 300 chimpanzees, 12 other primate species, and remarkable biodiversity.

• Gishwati-Mukura National Park (35.58 km²): Rwanda’s newest national park, gazetted in 2015, comprising two forest fragments. It harbors around 30 chimpanzees, along with golden and L’Hoest’s monkeys.

Table 1. Basic site information for Rwanda Nationwide

Species	Gorilla beringei beringei, Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii
Area	26,338 km²
Coordinates	Lat: -1.991215 , Lon: 29.949308
Type of site	Nation
Habitat types	Subtropical/tropical moist montane forest, Wetlands (lakes, rivers, streams, bogs, marshes), Rocky areas (inland cliffs, mountain peaks)
Type of governance	Governance by the government, Shared governance

Types of sites Governance types Habitat types

Ape status

Mountain gorillas in Volcanoes National Park number around 600, and the population trend is reported to be increasing. Chimpanzees in Nyungwe are estimated at around 300 individuals. Two habituated communities reside in the park: the Mayebe community (50–60 individuals) and the Cyamudongo community (35–40 individuals; Moore et al. 2018a). Meanwhile, Gishwati-Mukura holds about 30 individuals. The chimpanzee population in the Gishwati forest has increased in size—from 13 individuals in 2007, to 19 in 2010, and more recently, in 2019, chimpanzee trackers were able to identify 28 individuals (Chancellor et al. 2020).

Table 2. Ape population estimates reported for Rwanda Nationwide

Species	Year	Abundance estimate (95% CI)	Survey area	Sampling method	Analytical framework	Source	Comments	A.P.E.S. database ID
Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii	2019	28.0	Gishwati Forest	Full count		Chancellor et al. 2020
Gorilla beringei beringei	2015-16	669 (623-759)	Virunga massif (450 km²)	Genetic (dung/hair)	Spatially explicit capture-recapture, Reconnaissance walk	Granjon et al. 2020	Combination of recces and mark-recapture; estimate for the entire population including gorillas in DRC and Uganda
Gorilla beringei beringei	2010	480	Virunga massif (450 km²)	Genetic (dung/hair)	Count method	Gray et al. 2013	Recces; estimate for the entire population including gorillas in DRC and Uganda
Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii	2009-2010	19.0	Gishwati Forest Reserve	Genetic (dung/hair)		Chancellor et al. 2012		RWA0002
Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii	2009	306.0	Nyungwe Forest National Park	Line transects		WCS unpublished data, cited by Plumptre et al. 2010
Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii	2004-2005	380.0	Nyungwe Forest National Park	Unknown		WCS unpublished data, cited by Plumptre et al. 2010
Gorilla beringei beringei	2003	380	Virunga massif (450 km²)	Genetic (dung/hair)	Count method	Gray et al. 2003	Recces; estimate for the entire population including gorillas in DRC and Uganda
Gorilla beringei beringei	2000	359-395	Virunga massif (450 km²)	Other (type here)	Count method	Kalpers et al. 2003	Used regular ranger patrols to count nests of unhabituated groups and known number of gorillas from habituated groups; estimate for the entire population including gorillas in DRC and Uganda
Gorilla beringei beringei	1989	324	Virunga massif (450 km²)	Reconnaissance walk	Count method	Sholley 1991	Counted night nests; estimate for the entire population including gorillas in DRC and Uganda
Gorilla beringei beringei	1986	293	Virunga massif (450 km²)	Reconnaissance walk	Count method	Vedder and Aveling 1986	Estimate for the entire population including gorillas in DRC and Uganda
Gorilla beringei beringei	1981	254	Virunga massif (450 km²)	Line transects	Count method	Aveling and Harcourt 1984	Estimate for the entire population including gorillas in DRC and Uganda
Gorilla beringei beringei	1976-78	268	Virunga massif (450 km²)	Other (type here)	Count method	Weber and Vedder 1983	Used recces to count direct sightings, count nests and used demographic information from monitored groups; estimate for the entire population including gorillas in DRC and Uganda
Gorilla beringei beringei	1971-73	274	Virunga massif (450 km²)	Reconnaissance walk	Count method	Harcourt and Groom 1972, Groom 1973	Used recces and nest counts; estimate for the entire population including gorillas in DRC and Uganda
Gorilla beringei beringei	1959-60	400-500	Virunga massif (450 km²)	Reconnaissance walk		Schaller 1963	Estimate for the entire population including gorillas in DRC and Uganda

Sampling methods Analytical frameworks

Threats

Great apes in Rwanda face a range of interlinked threats across their habitats. In Volcanoes National Park, mountain gorillas were historically impacted by large-scale agricultural conversion, with about half of the park destroyed in the 1950s and 1960s (Weber, 1987, 1989; Maekawa et al., 2013). Although intentional hunting for trophies and live animal trade has ceased, gorillas remain highly vulnerable to snares set for other wildlife (Robbins et al., 2011). Diseases, including respiratory viruses, gastrointestinal parasites, measles, and outbreaks of Ebola and rabies in the wider region, continue to present a major threat (Mazet et al., 2020; Hassell et al., 2017; Petrželková et al., 2021, 2022). Human encroachment, small-scale logging, livestock grazing, fire, and invasive species further pressure gorilla habitat (Bush, 2010; Hoek et al., 2023; Uzabaho et al., 2023).

In Nyungwe National Park, chimpanzees are primarily threatened by snares set for other wildlife, which frequently cause accidental injury or death (Moore et al., 2018b; Grueter, pers. comm. 2025). Although poaching levels are lower than in other regions, it remains persistent, with nearly 40,000 poaching-related incidents recorded between 2006 and 2015 (Moore et al., 2018b). Mining activities, fires set to harvest honey, crop-raiding conflicts, and invasive species such as the fast-spreading liana Sericostachys contribute to long-term risks for both chimpanzees and their forest habitat (Plumptre et al., 2002; Scholte et al., 2010).

In Gishwati-Mukura National Park, chimpanzees are severely impacted by historical deforestation, with only a fraction of the forest remaining by the early 2000s (NASA Earth Observatory; Chancellor et al., 2020). Ongoing pressures include illegal logging, agricultural expansion, and mining, which continue to degrade and fragment critical habitat for this small and isolated chimpanzee population (Chancellor et al., 2020).

Conservation activities

Rwanda has developed one of the most extensive great ape conservation programs in Africa, combining strict protection, community engagement, research, and health interventions. Volcanoes National Park, home to the mountain gorilla, was first legally protected in 1925, making it Africa’s oldest national park (Kalpers et al., 2003). Since then, a wide range of conservation measures have been implemented. These include long-term anti-poaching patrols and daily monitoring of habituated gorilla groups (Harcourt, 1986; Stewart & Sicotte, 2001a), snare removal, and the permanent presence of rangers, veterinarians, and researchers (Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund, 2025). Gorilla health interventions have been central, with the creation of Gorilla Doctors to monitor, treat, and vaccinate apes when necessary (Morrison et al., 2021; Spelman et al., 2013). Rules limiting tourist visitation time, enforcing minimum viewing distances, and requiring masks and gloves are in place to reduce disease transmission (Gilardi et al., 2021). At the same time, conservation has emphasized sustainable community benefits, including tourism employment, cooperatives, and livestock distribution, helping transform former hunters into conservation allies (Fossey, 1983; Rwanda Development Board, 2025). Landmark initiatives such as the Kwita Izina gorilla-naming ceremony and conservation education programs have further raised awareness locally and internationally (McGuinness, 2014).

In Nyungwe National Park, declared a national park in 2004, conservation has focused on protecting chimpanzees and other primates through regular anti-poaching patrols, snare removal, and habitat buffering (Grueter, pers. comm., 2025). Tourist projects such as chimpanzee trekking, canopy walks, and colobus monkey viewing generate both revenue and employment, reinforcing the park’s permanent conservation presence (Nyungwe Forest National Park, 2025). Regulations on tourist contact—limiting visits to one hour and maintaining safe distances—mirror those applied in Volcanoes NP. Local communities also benefit from incentive programs such as employment to local people and alternative income opportunities, linking forest conservation with sustainable livelihoods (Grueter, pers. comm., 2025).

In Gishwati-Mukura National Park, more recent interventions have combined law enforcement, education, and habitat restoration. Declared a national park in 2015 (Inman & Ntoyinkama, 2020), the site has eco-guards patrolling against logging, charcoal production, and mining, while eco-clubs in local schools raise awareness among youth (Chancellor et al., 2020). Long-term chimpanzee research, initiated in 2008, continues to ensure a permanent conservation presence and provides critical data for future management (Chancellor et al., 2020). A central goal of past and ongoing initiatives has been restoring the forest corridor to Nyungwe, preserving gene flow between the two chimpanzee populations (Chancellor et al., 2020).

Challenges

Conservation of Rwanda’s great apes is constrained by a suite of long-standing, interlinked challenges. In Volcanoes National Park, large-scale habitat conversion (with more than half the park altered for agriculture and settlement in the mid-20th century) remain a legacy that complicates site management and community relations (Weber, 1987, 1989). Recurrent shortfalls in funding, equipment, infrastructure and specialist training limit the scope and effectiveness of conservation interventions, and more recently the COVID-19 pandemic caused sharp losses in tourism income, unemployment and gaps in monitoring and research — all of which weakened on-the-ground capacity and community incentives for conservation (Stewart & Sicotte, 2001b; Gilardi et al., 2021). Gishwati-Mukura faces acute legacy challenges from severe historical deforestation and fragmentation that left only small forest remnants; restoring connectivity, maintaining law enforcement against illegal grazing, logging and mining, and building long-term local stewardship and financing remain central hurdles for effective chimpanzee conservation there (Chancellor et al., 2021; Inman & Ntoyinkama, 2020). Taken together, these issues — historic land-use conflicts, constrained capacity and financing, pandemic shocks, and ongoing illegal resource use. Creating a conservation environment in which sustaining long-term protection, monitoring and community benefits for Rwanda’s mountain gorillas and chimpanzees requires continued investment in training, infrastructure, transboundary coordination and resilient funding mechanisms (Weber, 1987, 1989; Refisch & Jenson, 2016; Gilardi et al., 2021).

Enablers

Conservation of Rwanda’s great apes, namely the mountain gorillas in Volcanoes National Park and the chimpanzees in Nyungwe and Gishwati-Mukura National Parks, has been facilitated by a strong set of enablers. Adaptive management strategies, such as targeted anti-poaching patrols, have been critical in addressing direct threats (Robbins et al., 2011). Long-term monitoring and research since 1967 have provided a robust scientific foundation for conservation planning, supported by continuous funding and technical expertise from diverse partnerships at local, regional, and international levels (Robbins et al., 2011). Local communities have also become key enablers, benefiting from tourism revenue-sharing schemes—5% of gorilla tourism income was directed to communities in 2005, later raised to 10% in 2017—which has improved livelihoods and fostered positive attitudes toward conservation (Kalulu et al., 2016; Snyman et al., 2023). These programs, alongside employment opportunities as rangers, porters, and guides, have strengthened local support and reduced conflict with the parks. At the institutional level, the Rwandan government has played a central role through strong leadership, policy support, and effective coordination via the Rwanda Development Board, complemented by transboundary cooperation under the Greater Virunga Transboundary Collaboration (Refisch & Jenson, 2016). Stability in Rwanda’s political and socio-economic context since the early 2000s has further reinforced the enabling environment for conservation (Maekawa et al., 2013). Together, these enablers illustrate how integrated governance, community engagement, research, and stability underpin successful great ape conservation in Rwanda.

Research activities

Research activities have played a central role in shaping the conservation of Rwanda’s great apes, providing the scientific foundation for effective management and protection. The world’s longest-running gorilla research program was initiated by Dian Fossey in Volcanoes National Park in 1967, and has continued through the Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund in partnership with national and international institutions. This work has covered diverse themes, including gorilla ecology, behavior, physiology, ranging patterns, population dynamics, and threats, while also expanding since 2003 to monitor broader ecosystem components such as bamboo phenology, golden monkeys, birds, amphibians, mammals, and climate (Roelke & Smith, 2010; Tuyisingize et al., 2010; Tuyisingize et al., 2022). Gorilla Doctors, founded in 1985, complements these efforts by conducting applied health research on gorilla populations. More recently, social science research around Volcanoes National Park has investigated local community dynamics and conservation engagement (Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund, n.d.).

In Nyungwe National Park, long-term studies led by Grueter and colleagues since 2016 have examined the Mayebe chimpanzee community, focusing on dietary ecology, ranging decisions, cognitive adaptations, and responses to food scarcity in a thermally challenging, high-elevation habitat. Their work has revealed the importance of figs as staple foods, flexible travel strategies including use of human-made trails, and dynamic home range shifts in response to fruit availability, while also shedding light on socio-ecological drivers of female gregariousness and gut microbiome variation (Matthews et al., 2019; Matthews et al., 2020; Green, Boruff, & Grueter, 2020; Green, Boruff, Niyigaba, Ndikubwimana, & Grueter, 2020; Matthews et al., 2021; Grueter, Ridley, Kaplin, & Matthews, 2023).

Complementary research in Gishwati-Mukura National Park has been promoted through the Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund, which emphasizes biodiversity assessments and the integration of conservation science into park management (Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund [CEPF], 2015). Collectively, these diverse research initiatives underscore how rigorous and sustained scientific inquiry has provided the ecological and social knowledge base underpinning conservation of Rwanda’s great apes.

Documented behaviours

Documented behaviors of Rwanda’s great apes provide valuable insights into their ecology and cultural repertoire. In Volcanoes National Park, mountain gorilla social, feeding, and ranging behaviors have been intensively studied since 1967, generating one of the most comprehensive long-term behavioral datasets for any primate species (Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund, n.d.). In Nyungwe National Park, chimpanzees have demonstrated notable tool-use behaviors, including the use of sticks to extract honey from both underground nests of stingless bees and arboreal bee nests, highlighting their ecological adaptability and problem-solving skills (Grueter, al-Razi et al., unpublished; Grueter, Green et al., unpublished). Together, these documented behaviors not only deepen scientific understanding but also reinforce the importance of behavioral research for guiding conservation strategies.

Exposure to climate change impacts

External links

Rwanda Development Board (RDB)
Visit Rwanda-Tourism
Visit Rwanda-Volcanoes National Park
Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund
Scientific Publications
Nyungwe Forest National Park - A Destination Guide
African Parks-Nyungwe National Park
Visit Rwanda-Nyungwe National Park WCS Rwanda
Gishwati-Mukura National Park_Guide Book
Gishwati-Mukura Landscape Biosphere Reserve UNESCO
Visit Rwanda – Gishwati-Mukura National Park

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