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= Site characteristics =
= Site characteristics =


The Lebialem Complex (also known as the Lebialem Highlands) is situated in southwestern Cameroon, between [[Banyang-Mbo Wildlife Sanctuary]] to the south and the [[Mone-Oko Complex]] to the north. It consists of a series of forests located directly to the west of some of the highest human population densities in the region (Morgan et al. 2011). The site was identified as a "chimpanzee conservation planning unit" (CCPU) in the IUCN Regional Action Plan for the Conservation of the Nigeria-Cameroon Chimpanzee. The site was identified as an area with relatively high chimpanzee density and high potential chimpanzee habitat (Morgan et al. 2011). Lebialem contains some of Africa’s most threatened primate species, including the Cross River gorilla, Nigeria-Cameroon chimpanzee, drill and Preuss’s guenon (Wright & Priston 2010).
The Lebialem Complex (also known as the Lebialem Highlands) is situated in southwestern Cameroon, between [[Banyang-Mbo Wildlife Sanctuary]] to the south and the [[Mone-Oko Complex]] to the north. It consists of a series of forests located directly to the west of some of the highest human population densities in the region ([[#R01039|Morgan et al. 2011]]). The site was identified as a "chimpanzee conservation planning unit" (CCPU) in the IUCN Regional Action Plan for the Conservation of the Nigeria-Cameroon Chimpanzee. The site was identified as an area with relatively high chimpanzee density and high potential chimpanzee habitat ([[#R01039|Morgan et al. 2011]]). Lebialem contains some of Africa’s most threatened primate species, including the Cross River gorilla, Nigeria-Cameroon chimpanzee, drill and Preuss’s guenon ([[#R01042|Wright & Priston 2010]]).


'''Table 1. Basic site information for Lebialem Complex'''
'''Table 1. Basic site information for Lebialem Complex'''
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|2.1 Annual & perennial non-timber crops
|2.1 Annual & perennial non-timber crops
|High (more than 70% of population affected)
|High (more than 70% of population affected)
|Forest clearance for agriculture (Morgan et al. 2011). Widespread slash-and-burn agriculture within and on the periphery of protected areas (Nkemngu 2017).
|Forest clearance for agriculture ([[#R01039|Morgan et al. 2011]]). Widespread slash-and-burn agriculture within and on the periphery of protected areas ([[#R01040|Nkemngu 2017]]).
|2011-Ongoing (2017)
|2011-Ongoing (2017)
|-
|-
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|2.3 Livestock farming & ranching
|2.3 Livestock farming & ranching
|Present (unknown severity)
|Present (unknown severity)
|Overgrazing has exacerbated habitat loss (Nkemngu 2017).
|Overgrazing has exacerbated habitat loss ([[#R01040|Nkemngu 2017]]).
|Ongoing (2017)
|Ongoing (2017)
|-
|-
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|3.2 Mining & quarrying
|3.2 Mining & quarrying
|Present (unknown severity)
|Present (unknown severity)
|Mining (Nkemngu 2017).
|Mining ([[#R01040|Nkemngu 2017]]).
|Ongoing (2017)
|Ongoing (2017)
|-
|-
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|5.1 Hunting & collecting terrestrial animals
|5.1 Hunting & collecting terrestrial animals
|High (more than 70% of population affected)
|High (more than 70% of population affected)
|Hunting, mainly for income generation (Wright & Priston 2010, Nkemngu 2017). Displaced people by militia terror are turning to foraging, hunting, and snaring to survive. Due to gun confiscations, trapping has soared, which degrades small mammal populations (Sunday 2026).
|Hunting, mainly for income generation ([[#R01042|Wright & Priston 2010]], [[#R01040|Nkemngu 2017]]). Displaced people by militia terror are turning to foraging, hunting, and snaring to survive. Due to gun confiscations, trapping has soared, which degrades small mammal populations ([[#R01041|Sunday 2026]]).
|2010-Ongoing (2026)
|2010-Ongoing (2026)
|-
|-
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|5.2 Gathering terrestrial plants
|5.2 Gathering terrestrial plants
|Present (unknown severity)
|Present (unknown severity)
|Unsustainable exploitation of Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFPs) (Nkemngu 2017).
|Unsustainable exploitation of Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFPs) ([[#R01040|Nkemngu 2017]]).
|Ongoing (2017)
|Ongoing (2017)
|-
|-
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|6.2 War, civil unrest & military exercises
|6.2 War, civil unrest & military exercises
|High (more than 70% of population affected)
|High (more than 70% of population affected)
|Militias converting protected areas into strategic bases, cutting down trees for shelter/cooking/defenses, and actively killing wildlife in the forest (Sunday 2026).
|Militias converting protected areas into strategic bases, cutting down trees for shelter/cooking/defenses, and actively killing wildlife in the forest ([[#R01041|Sunday 2026]]).
|2016-Ongoing (2026)
|2016-Ongoing (2026)
|-
|-
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|5.3 Logging & wood harvesting
|5.3 Logging & wood harvesting
|High (more than 70% of population affected)
|High (more than 70% of population affected)
|Heavy deforestation caused by agricultural encroachment and militia occupancy for shelter, cooking, and defensive structures (Sunday 2026; ERuDeF 2026).
|Heavy deforestation caused by agricultural encroachment and militia occupancy for shelter, cooking, and defensive structures ([[#R01041|Sunday 2026]]; [[#R01038|ERuDeF 2026]]).
|2016-Ongoing (2026)
|2016-Ongoing (2026)
|}
|}
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= Conservation activities =
= Conservation activities =


The Environment and Rural Development Foundation (ERuDeF) is a central NGO in the implementation of conservation efforts in the Lebialem highlands since 2004 ([https://erudef.org/lebialem-highlands/ ERuDeF], Nkemngu 2017). In 2010, with funding from Taiwan, the ARCUS Foundation and Flora and Fauna International, a process was launched to assist the Government of Cameroon to create the Tofala Hill Wildlife Sanctuary (Nkemngu 2017).
The Environment and Rural Development Foundation (ERuDeF) is a central NGO in the implementation of conservation efforts in the Lebialem highlands since 2004 ([https://erudef.org/lebialem-highlands/ ERuDeF], [[#R01040|Nkemngu 2017]]). In 2010, with funding from Taiwan, the ARCUS Foundation and Flora and Fauna International, a process was launched to assist the Government of Cameroon to create the Tofala Hill Wildlife Sanctuary ([[#R01040|Nkemngu 2017]]).


'''Table 4. Conservation activities reported for Lebialem Complex'''
'''Table 4. Conservation activities reported for Lebialem Complex'''
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|4 Education & awareness
|4 Education & awareness
|4.1 Educate local communities about apes and sustainable use
|4.1 Educate local communities about apes and sustainable use
|[https://erudef.org/lebialem-highlands/ ERuDeF] have been conducting environmental education in the areas with support from Tusk trust, Taiwan government, Man and Nature and other partners. ERuDeF has also donated books to schools and supports school fees for orphans and children around the area to be protected.
|[[#R02041|ERuDeF]] have been conducting environmental education in the areas with support from Tusk trust, Taiwan government, Man and Nature and other partners. ERuDeF has also donated books to schools and supports school fees for orphans and children around the area to be protected.
|Environment and Rural Development Foundation (ERuDeF)
|Environment and Rural Development Foundation (ERuDeF)
|2010-Ongoing (2026)
|2010-Ongoing (2026)
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|4 Education & awareness
|4 Education & awareness
|4.4 Regularly play TV and radio announcements to raise ape conservation awareness
|4.4 Regularly play TV and radio announcements to raise ape conservation awareness
|Community radio programs supported by [https://erudef.org/lebialem-highlands/ ERuDeF].
|Community radio programs supported by [[#R02041|ERuDeF]].
|Environment and Rural Development Foundation (ERuDeF)
|Environment and Rural Development Foundation (ERuDeF)
|2010-Ongoing (2026)
|2010-Ongoing (2026)
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|4 Education & awareness
|4 Education & awareness
|4.5 Implement multimedia campaigns using theatre, film, print media, discussions
|4.5 Implement multimedia campaigns using theatre, film, print media, discussions
|[https://erudef.org/lebialem-highlands/ ERuDeF] with support from partners has supported public information system through the green vision news paper, online publication and flyers.
|[[#R02041|ERuDeF]] with support from partners has supported public information system through the green vision news paper, online publication and flyers.
|Environment and Rural Development Foundation (ERuDeF)
|Environment and Rural Development Foundation (ERuDeF)
|2010-Ongoing (2026)
|2010-Ongoing (2026)
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|5 Protection & restoration
|5 Protection & restoration
|5.2 Legally protect ape habitat
|5.2 Legally protect ape habitat
|Ongoing projects include the Tofala Hill Wildlife Sanctuary, the Mount Bamboutos Integral Ecological Reserve, and the Tofala-Mone Forest Corridor. ERuDeF is also assisting the government in protecting apes in the Mak/Betchou Forest, Nkingkwa Hills and Tofala-Mone Forest Corridor (Nkemngu 2017).
|Ongoing projects include the Tofala Hill Wildlife Sanctuary, the Mount Bamboutos Integral Ecological Reserve, and the Tofala-Mone Forest Corridor. ERuDeF is also assisting the government in protecting apes in the Mak/Betchou Forest, Nkingkwa Hills and Tofala-Mone Forest Corridor ([[#R01040|Nkemngu 2017]]).
|Environment and Rural Development Foundation (ERuDeF), and Government of Cameroon
|Environment and Rural Development Foundation (ERuDeF), and Government of Cameroon
|2014-Ongoing (2026)
|2014-Ongoing (2026)
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|7 Economic & other incentives
|7 Economic & other incentives
|7.2 Provide non-monetary benefits to local communities for sustainably managing their forest and its wildlife (e.g., better education, infrastructure development)
|7.2 Provide non-monetary benefits to local communities for sustainably managing their forest and its wildlife (e.g., better education, infrastructure development)
|[https://erudef.org/lebialem-highlands/ ERuDeF] constructed permanent toilets for two schools around the proposed Mak-Betchou wildlife sanctuary.
|[[#R02041|ERuDeF]] constructed permanent toilets for two schools around the proposed Mak-Betchou wildlife sanctuary.
|Environment and Rural Development Foundation (ERuDeF)
|Environment and Rural Development Foundation (ERuDeF)
|2014
|2014
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|2 Resources and capacity
|2 Resources and capacity
|2.3 General lack of funding
|2.3 General lack of funding
|ERuDeF 2026
|[[#R01038|ERuDeF 2026]]
|Ongoing (2026)
|Ongoing (2026)
|-
|-
|4 Institutional support
|4 Institutional support
|4.1 Lack of law enforcement
|4.1 Lack of law enforcement
|Nkemngu 2017
|[[#R01040|Nkemngu 2017]]
|
|
|-
|-
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|6 Safety and stability
|6 Safety and stability
|6.2 Insecurity
|6.2 Insecurity
|Sunday 2026
|[[#R01041|Sunday 2026]]
|2016-Ongoing (2026)
|2016-Ongoing (2026)
|}
|}
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|2 Resources and capacity
|2 Resources and capacity
|2.6 External partnerships that add expertise or resources
|2.6 External partnerships that add expertise or resources
|ERuDeF 2026
|[[#R01038|ERuDeF 2026]]
|2014-2018
|2014-2018
|-
|-
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= Research activities =
= Research activities =


The Environment and Rural Development Foundation (ERuDeF) conducts targeted bio-monitoring initiatives to gather essential quantitative data on great ape populations, general wildlife status, and species distribution. As part of this comprehensive effort, field teams track and document long-term changes in anthropogenic activities within the Tofala Hill Wildlife Sanctuary and the Njoawi-Fotabong III-Essoh-Attah area. This sustained tracking directly informed the 2010 development of the first comprehensive great apes distribution map for the broader Lebialem Highlands landscape (ERuDeF 2026).
The Environment and Rural Development Foundation (ERuDeF) conducts targeted bio-monitoring initiatives to gather essential quantitative data on great ape populations, general wildlife status, and species distribution. As part of this comprehensive effort, field teams track and document long-term changes in anthropogenic activities within the Tofala Hill Wildlife Sanctuary and the Njoawi-Fotabong III-Essoh-Attah area. This sustained tracking directly informed the 2010 development of the first comprehensive great apes distribution map for the broader Lebialem Highlands landscape ([[#R01038|ERuDeF 2026]]).


= Documented behaviours =
= Documented behaviours =
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= References =
= References =


ERuDeF. (2026, May 13). Cross River Gorilla Conservation Program: Reconnecting fragmented populations. https://erudef.org/cross-river-gorilla-conservation-program-reconnecting-fragmented-populations/ <br>
<span id="R01038"></span>ERuDeF. (2026, May 13). Cross River Gorilla Conservation Program: Reconnecting fragmented populations. https://erudef.org/cross-river-gorilla-conservation-program-reconnecting-fragmented-populations/


Morgan, B. J., Adeleke, A., Bassey, T., Bergl, R., Dunn, A., Fotso, R., ... & Williamson, E. A. (2011). Regional action plan for the conservation of the Nigeria–Cameroon chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes ellioti). IUCN/SSC Primate Specialist Group and Zoological Society of San Diego. <br>
<span id="R01039"></span>Morgan, B., Adeleke, A., Bassey, T., Bergl, R., Dunn, A., Fotso, R., …, & Williamson, E. (2011). Regional Action Plan for the Conservation of the Nigeria-Cameroon chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes ellioti). IUCN/SSC Primate Specialist Group and Zoological Society of San Diego. [https://portals.iucn.org/library/sites/library/files/documents/2011-123-Fr.pdf link]


Nkemngu, A. (2017, January 31). NGO takes action to save great apes in Cameroon’s Lebialem Highlands. Retrieved from Mongabay. Online: https://news.mongabay.com/2017/01/ngo-takes-action-to-save-great-apes-in-cameroons-lebialem-highlands/ <br>
<span id="R01040"></span>Nkemngu, A. (2017, January 31). NGO takes action to save great apes in Cameroon’s Lebialem Highlands. Retrieved from Mongabay. Online: https://news.mongabay.com/2017/01/ngo-takes-action-to-save-great-apes-in-cameroons-lebialem-highlands/


Sunday, O. (2026, March 3). Cameroon's decade of conflict leaves apes and conservationists in peril. Mongabay. https://news.mongabay.com/2026/03/cameroons-decade-of-conflict-leaves-apes-and-conservationists-in-peril/ <br>
<span id="R01041"></span>Sunday, O. (2026, March 3). Cameroon's decade of conflict leaves apes and conservationists in peril. Mongabay. https://news.mongabay.com/2026/03/cameroons-decade-of-conflict-leaves-apes-and-conservationists-in-peril/


<span id="R01042"></span>Wright, J., & Priston, N. (2010). Hunting and trapping in Lebialem Division, Cameroon: bushmeat harvesting practices and human reliance. ''Endangered Species Research'', 11(1), 1-12. [https://doi.org/10.3354/esr00244 doi:10.3354/esr00244]


 
<span id="R02041"></span>ERuDeF. https://erudef.org/lebialem-highlands/
Wright, J. H., & Priston, N. E. (2010). Hunting and trapping in Lebialem Division, Cameroon: bushmeat harvesting practices and human reliance. Endangered species research, 11(1), 1-12.




Revision as of 16:28, 12 October 2026

Central Africa > Cameroon > Lebialem Complex

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Summary

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  • Nigeria-Cameroon chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes ellioti) & Cross river gorillas (Gorilla gorilla diehli) are present in Lebialem Complex.
  • The population sizes are unknown.
  • The population trends are unknown.
  • The size of the site is unknown.
  • Key threats to great apes are expansion of slash-and-burn agriculture and hunting.
  • Conservation activities have focused on environmental education and efforts to increase protected areas in the landscape.

Site characteristics

The Lebialem Complex (also known as the Lebialem Highlands) is situated in southwestern Cameroon, between Banyang-Mbo Wildlife Sanctuary to the south and the Mone-Oko Complex to the north. It consists of a series of forests located directly to the west of some of the highest human population densities in the region (Morgan et al. 2011). The site was identified as a "chimpanzee conservation planning unit" (CCPU) in the IUCN Regional Action Plan for the Conservation of the Nigeria-Cameroon Chimpanzee. The site was identified as an area with relatively high chimpanzee density and high potential chimpanzee habitat (Morgan et al. 2011). Lebialem contains some of Africa’s most threatened primate species, including the Cross River gorilla, Nigeria-Cameroon chimpanzee, drill and Preuss’s guenon (Wright & Priston 2010).

Table 1. Basic site information for Lebialem Complex

Species Pan troglodytes ellioti, Gorilla gorilla diehli
Area
Coordinates Lat: 5.624129 , Lon: 9.659034
Type of site Non-protected area
Habitat types Subtropical/tropical moist montane forest
Type of governance

Types of sites Governance types Habitat types

Ape status

In March 2018, 20 chimpanzees were recorded in a single group in the area (survey method unknown; ERuDeF).

Table 2. Ape population estimates reported for Lebialem Complex

Species Year Occurrence Encounter or vistation rate (nests/km; ind/day) Density estimate [ind./ km²] (95% CI) Abundance estimate (95% CI) Survey area Sampling method Analytical framework Source Comments A.P.E.S. database ID
Pan troglodytes ellioti Lebialem Complex
Gorilla gorilla diehli Lebialem Complex

Sampling methods Analytical frameworks

Threats

Main threats to wildlife in the area include forest conversion to farmland, corridor fragmentation and poaching (ERuDeF).

Table 3. Threats to apes reported for Lebialem Complex

Category Specific threats Threat level Description Year of threat
2 Agriculture & aquaculture 2.1 Annual & perennial non-timber crops High (more than 70% of population affected) Forest clearance for agriculture (Morgan et al. 2011). Widespread slash-and-burn agriculture within and on the periphery of protected areas (Nkemngu 2017). 2011-Ongoing (2017)
2 Agriculture & aquaculture 2.3 Livestock farming & ranching Present (unknown severity) Overgrazing has exacerbated habitat loss (Nkemngu 2017). Ongoing (2017)
3 Energy production & mining 3.2 Mining & quarrying Present (unknown severity) Mining (Nkemngu 2017). Ongoing (2017)
5 Biological resource use 5.1 Hunting & collecting terrestrial animals High (more than 70% of population affected) Hunting, mainly for income generation (Wright & Priston 2010, Nkemngu 2017). Displaced people by militia terror are turning to foraging, hunting, and snaring to survive. Due to gun confiscations, trapping has soared, which degrades small mammal populations (Sunday 2026). 2010-Ongoing (2026)
5 Biological resource use 5.2 Gathering terrestrial plants Present (unknown severity) Unsustainable exploitation of Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFPs) (Nkemngu 2017). Ongoing (2017)
6 Human intrusions & disturbance 6.2 War, civil unrest & military exercises High (more than 70% of population affected) Militias converting protected areas into strategic bases, cutting down trees for shelter/cooking/defenses, and actively killing wildlife in the forest (Sunday 2026). 2016-Ongoing (2026)
5 Biological resource use 5.3 Logging & wood harvesting High (more than 70% of population affected) Heavy deforestation caused by agricultural encroachment and militia occupancy for shelter, cooking, and defensive structures (Sunday 2026; ERuDeF 2026). 2016-Ongoing (2026)

Threats

Conservation activities

The Environment and Rural Development Foundation (ERuDeF) is a central NGO in the implementation of conservation efforts in the Lebialem highlands since 2004 (ERuDeF, Nkemngu 2017). In 2010, with funding from Taiwan, the ARCUS Foundation and Flora and Fauna International, a process was launched to assist the Government of Cameroon to create the Tofala Hill Wildlife Sanctuary (Nkemngu 2017).

Table 4. Conservation activities reported for Lebialem Complex

Category Specific activity Description Implementing organization(s) Year of activity
4 Education & awareness 4.1 Educate local communities about apes and sustainable use ERuDeF have been conducting environmental education in the areas with support from Tusk trust, Taiwan government, Man and Nature and other partners. ERuDeF has also donated books to schools and supports school fees for orphans and children around the area to be protected. Environment and Rural Development Foundation (ERuDeF) 2010-Ongoing (2026)
4 Education & awareness 4.4 Regularly play TV and radio announcements to raise ape conservation awareness Community radio programs supported by ERuDeF. Environment and Rural Development Foundation (ERuDeF) 2010-Ongoing (2026)
4 Education & awareness 4.5 Implement multimedia campaigns using theatre, film, print media, discussions ERuDeF with support from partners has supported public information system through the green vision news paper, online publication and flyers. Environment and Rural Development Foundation (ERuDeF) 2010-Ongoing (2026)
5 Protection & restoration 5.2 Legally protect ape habitat Ongoing projects include the Tofala Hill Wildlife Sanctuary, the Mount Bamboutos Integral Ecological Reserve, and the Tofala-Mone Forest Corridor. ERuDeF is also assisting the government in protecting apes in the Mak/Betchou Forest, Nkingkwa Hills and Tofala-Mone Forest Corridor (Nkemngu 2017). Environment and Rural Development Foundation (ERuDeF), and Government of Cameroon 2014-Ongoing (2026)
7 Economic & other incentives 7.2 Provide non-monetary benefits to local communities for sustainably managing their forest and its wildlife (e.g., better education, infrastructure development) ERuDeF constructed permanent toilets for two schools around the proposed Mak-Betchou wildlife sanctuary. Environment and Rural Development Foundation (ERuDeF) 2014

Conservation activities

Challenges

Table 5. Challenges reported for Lebialem Complex

Challenges Specific challenges Source Year(s)
2 Resources and capacity 2.1 Lack of capacity/training ERuDeF
2 Resources and capacity 2.3 General lack of funding ERuDeF 2026 Ongoing (2026)
4 Institutional support 4.1 Lack of law enforcement Nkemngu 2017
4 Institutional support 4.2 Lack of government support ERuDeF
6 Safety and stability 6.2 Insecurity Sunday 2026 2016-Ongoing (2026)

Challenges

Enablers

Table 6. Enablers reported for Lebialem Complex

Enablers Specific enablers Source Year(s)
1 Site management
2 Resources and capacity 2.6 External partnerships that add expertise or resources ERuDeF 2026 2014-2018
3 Engaged community
4 Institutional support
5 Ecological context
6 Safety and stability

Enablers

Research activities

The Environment and Rural Development Foundation (ERuDeF) conducts targeted bio-monitoring initiatives to gather essential quantitative data on great ape populations, general wildlife status, and species distribution. As part of this comprehensive effort, field teams track and document long-term changes in anthropogenic activities within the Tofala Hill Wildlife Sanctuary and the Njoawi-Fotabong III-Essoh-Attah area. This sustained tracking directly informed the 2010 development of the first comprehensive great apes distribution map for the broader Lebialem Highlands landscape (ERuDeF 2026).

Documented behaviours

Table 7. Behaviours documented for Lebialem Complex

Category Behavior Observation type Prevalence Observation dates Source Habituation Species Comment
Not reported

Behaviours

Exposure to climate change impacts

External links

ERuDeF

References

ERuDeF. (2026, May 13). Cross River Gorilla Conservation Program: Reconnecting fragmented populations. https://erudef.org/cross-river-gorilla-conservation-program-reconnecting-fragmented-populations/

Morgan, B., Adeleke, A., Bassey, T., Bergl, R., Dunn, A., Fotso, R., …, & Williamson, E. (2011). Regional Action Plan for the Conservation of the Nigeria-Cameroon chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes ellioti). IUCN/SSC Primate Specialist Group and Zoological Society of San Diego. link

Nkemngu, A. (2017, January 31). NGO takes action to save great apes in Cameroon’s Lebialem Highlands. Retrieved from Mongabay. Online: https://news.mongabay.com/2017/01/ngo-takes-action-to-save-great-apes-in-cameroons-lebialem-highlands/

Sunday, O. (2026, March 3). Cameroon's decade of conflict leaves apes and conservationists in peril. Mongabay. https://news.mongabay.com/2026/03/cameroons-decade-of-conflict-leaves-apes-and-conservationists-in-peril/

Wright, J., & Priston, N. (2010). Hunting and trapping in Lebialem Division, Cameroon: bushmeat harvesting practices and human reliance. Endangered Species Research, 11(1), 1-12. doi:10.3354/esr00244

ERuDeF. https://erudef.org/lebialem-highlands/


Page created by: APES Atlas Team Date: 2022-07-04

Page updated by: APES Atlas Team Date: 2026-07-11

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